The Age of Neo-Imperialism: European History, 1871 to 1914

The period from 1815-1914 is often referred to as the “Hundred Years’ Peace,“ or “Pax Britannica” (the “Peace of Britain”.) From the end of the Napoleonic Wars at Waterloo in 1815 until the outbreak of war in 1914, Europe found itself relatively free of conflict, with the exception of the Crimean war 1854-1856, and the wars of Italian and German unification, culminating in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 – 1871.

Compared with the long series of wars that had preceded 1815 and the carnage of the 20th century, the notion of a hundred years of peace is not an unfair assessment. Beginning around 1870, however, events began to evolve in ways that threatened the long-standing stability, and a long slide toward eventual conflict began, though it was far from apparent at the time. Indeed, following the wars of German unification of the 1860s and the Prussian defeat of France in 1870-71, the rise of the remarkable statesman, Prince Otto von Bismarck of Prussia, seemed to promise a period of, if not permanent, then certainly long-lasting peace. Through wily manipulation of power (what he called Realpolitik) and skillful diplomacy, Bismarck created an alliance system that although built on a real component of international tension, nevertheless was very stable.

Through a series of treaties, conferences and diplomatic exchanges, most of which were conducted in varying degrees of secrecy, Bismarck carefully built his structure, knowing all the while that underneath it was fragile and indeed might well be upset someday. (He predicted that if and when it fell apart it would be due to “some damned foolishness in the Balkans,” and in fact he was right, though it happened some 20 years after his death.)

One area of continued conflict and competition, however, was the continuing emphasis the European nations put on expanding and solidifying their imperial conquests. The British, for example, continued to develop their empires in India and elsewhere around the globe.  France attempted to create a new imperial domain in Mexico in 1864, but was thwarted by the United States at the end of the Civil war in 1865. French Emperor Napoleon III did, however, shore up his empire in Southeast Asia known as French Indochina, which included Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.  The Germans, Belgians, Dutch, and British continued to develop their imperial domains throughout the African continent as well.  The desire for colonies as a source of raw materials, cheap labor, and markets was the driving force behind much of the neo-imperialism of the late 19th century, though it was often camouflaged by the service paid to what can be called the missionary spirit.

In addition, Bismarck and the statesmen who followed had to deal with the fact that industry had begun to revolutionize the World by 1871. Following the American Civil War, with new weapons and techniques, it was clear that railroads, steamships, and other industrial advances were going to reshape not only war itself, but defense policies and preparations for war as well. International economics—manufacturing, agriculture and trade—were becoming more complicated, and more centralized and unified nations brought a new and sharper edge to international competitiveness than had been true in more relaxed times. Competition also existed among rival political philosophies, from communism and socialism on one end of the spectrum to classical capitalism supported by more or less democratic regimes on the other.

Those competing ideas often co-existed within nations, not always peacefully, as had been apparent during the revolutions that spread across Europe in 1848. The world, in short, grew far more complicated as well as more dangerous between 1871 and 1914, as unparalleled industrial, economic and population growth and shifting demographics dominated the international scene. Science was opening new doors, urbanization was changing national landscapes, and huge migrations of peoples were altering the character of nations like the U.S.

Updated September 15, 2006