• U.S. Policy is permeated by a sense of disillusionment.
• U.S. refuses to be bound by any agreement to preserve international peace.
• Follows foreign policy that is narrow, cautious, and self-centered.
• Primarily isolationist through the 1930s
• As WWII nears, the U.S. becomes increasingly involved in world affairs and takes a leading role in maintaining world order.
• In World War II the U.S. will become the dominant world power; and into the Cold War, when Americans learn they can no longer live in isolation.
• Peace movements abound in the U.S. and elsewhere.
• Domestic issues dominate U.S. foreign policy. Boom to bust.
• Red Scare—"100% Americanism"—Let Europe stew in its own juice, etc. Incredible indifference to the fate of Europe during the 1920s.
• Tariffs hurt international trade.
• Anti-Japanese immigration policy; tight immigration laws a paradox considering number of immigrants already in U.S.
• The U.S. military is reduced to 118,00 by 1927.
• Washington wants World War I debts paid, quarrels with almost everybody over various issues. America had loaned Allies during and after war a total of $11billion. Great Britain proposes canceling reparations debts if U.S. will cancel Great Britain’s $4 billion debt. U.S refuses.
• Europeans continue to seek ways out; resent the fact that they bore huge burden of war before U.S. entry.

The Good Neighbor Policy. The U.S. has a history of intervention in Latin America going back to the time of Andrew Jackson in Florida when it still belonged to Spain. Hoover and Roosevelt and many other Americans slowly recognize the basic unfairness of America’s Latin American policy. Both Harding and Coolidge had to deal with growing "Yankee-phobia" south of the border. Hoover rejects Wilson’s interventionist policies and goes on a goodwill tour after the 1928 election. The gradual removal of all occupying forces is begun, completed by 1934. The United States also renounces the right to intervene in Cuban affairs by terminating the Platt Amendment. Many problem areas still exist, and the U.S. has difficult problems to resolve with various nations, but the "good neighbor" policy improves relations enormously, so that by World War II the Western Hemisphere is reasonable unified, even though the United States is still the "colossus of the North."

In 1936 FDR attends the Buenos Aires Inter-American Conference. FDR’s address to the delegates is well received—he calls himself a "Traveling salesman for peace" and preaches "mutual safety." The Lima Declaration of 1938 reinforces American solidarity.

In the crisis years of 1931-1939 the U.S. responded by going deeper into isolationism. American saw themselves as "innocent bystanders" in world affairs. In 1933 the U.S. fianlly recognized the Soviet government and established formal relations with the U.S.S.R—primarily for business reasons. In 1935-6 when Hitler began to menace Europe, Americans wanted to stay out, but didn’t know how. Secretary Stimson said: "The only sure way to stay out of war is to prevent it."

The Nye Committee Hearings. Senator Gerald Nye of North Dakota tried to show that munitions makers had made "huge" profits during W.W.I. and were therefore somehow responsible for America’s involvement in the conflict. They were called the "Merchants of Death." Although the results of the Nye Committee investigation were inconclusive, the isolationists won the day and several Neutrality Acts were the result:

• The Neutrality Act of 1935 forbade sale of arms to belligerents. Civilians enter war zone on belligerent ships at their own risk. FDR signs the Act in August 1935.
• The arms embargo on all nations portion was opposed by FDR because it made it impossible for us to influence the action.
• The Act was invoked in 1935 when Italy invaded Ethiopia. No neutrals on belligerent ships. Italy insulted. (Lesson: Don't go around insulting belligerents when trying to stay out of war.) Half-hearted sanctions made things worse, as was demonstrated when Italy attacked Ethiopia.

• Belief that the depression had been caused by W.W.I
• Belief that Europe was unworthy of our support
• Pacifism—people who hated and abhorred war
• Belief that arms manufacturers, bankers had caused war
• Belief that W.W.I had been a tragic mistake for the U.S

1936 The 1935 Neutrality Act is extended to 1 May 1937 and forbids loans or credits to belligerents.

August 14: FDR makes his Chautauqua speech: "I hate war." Very strong speech, in which he holds out for discretionary power, but his words still please the isolationists. The American people feel (correctly) that Europe is going to go up in flames and that we should stay out. The U.S. is criticized for aloofness, but France and Great Britain don't do much either.

See FDR Chautauqua Speech, 1936.

1937 New Neutrality Law restricts arms sales, neutral travel, forbids arming merchantmen; cash and carry on items other than munitions allows profit-making without involvement. Much discretion granted to president to list other items. The Neutrality Act are never invoked against Japan because war never declared on China. By not invoking Neutrality Act FDR in effect aided China. But Japan also helped because of large merchant marine.

1937 Peak of isolationism. Gallup poll: 94% say "keep out" over "prevent." In his Quarantine Speech FDR urges isolation of aggressors. Widespread boycott of Japanese goods follows. Constitutional amendment proposed that except in case of invasion, declarations of war would be conducted by referendum.

See FDR Quarantine Speech.

1939 Germany attacks Poland, September 1. Wolrd War II in Europe has begun.

1939 Neutrality ("Cash and Carry") Act repeals Neutrality Act of 1937. Declaring of war zone gives Hitler justification for using U-boats. No doubt which side we are on this time.

As war progresses, U.S. becomes appalled at Hitler's tyranny; measures short of war seen as OK—whatever we could get away with. FDR pushed it as far as he could.

Albert Einstein sends letter to FDR about atomic bomb.

1940. By 1940 the U.S. population is 131.7 million. In April Germany overruns Denmark in one day, and Norway takes only one month. Belgium, the Netherlands and France fall quickly as well. Thousand of British and French soldiers are saved by the "miracle" of Dunkirk. By June 22 the French have capitulated. The British now stand alone, and Churchill faces the future with "grim resolution," looking toward the U.S. for help.

See FDR’s "Hand that held the Dagger" Speech, Charlottesville, 1940.

The U.S. institutes first ever peacetime draft, begins rearming.

May-June FDR calls for increased military expenditures, releases outdated military equipment to Great Britain. $43 million worth sent in June alone.

20 June. FDR names Republicans Stimson and Knox to War and Navy posts—spirit of cooperation in the face of crisis. Still the internationalist-isolationist debate goes on. Many clubs and organizations urge non-involvement. As war grows closer, FDR falls behind public opinion, perhaps from over-concern with isolationists like Lindbergh.

1940 Presidential Election: A third term for FDR a major issue. Much isolationist sentiment among Republicans. No Democratic challengers to FDR. "Man above the fray." Willkie too close to FDR on most issues to draw any distinction. FDR’s promise: "I have said it … again and again and again. Your boys are not going to be sent to fight in any foreign wars."

Results: New Deal programs were very popular. Hard to make political hay out of many of the issues. FDR wins 55-49%, smaller percentage than in 1932 or 1936. Still, 449-82 in Electoral College. "Don't switch horses in the middle of the stream."

1941 In this section see FDR’s "Arsenal of Democracy" Speech, The Atlantic Charter, and FDR’s "day of Infamy."

Feb-May: Battle of the Atlantic. Germans do great damage to shipping, sink U.S. ships within sight of shore. January-March Secret military talks in Washington between U.S., British staffs decide Germany first policy.
Japan signs non-aggression pact with Russia

March 11. Lend-Lease Act comes about as result of correspondence between Churchill and FDR. $7 billion—largest appropriation in U.S. history. Total in war $50 billion.

April. FDR extends convoy patrols across Atlantic nearly to Iceland. U.S. destroyers fire at U-boots with some success, losses. OPA established.

Balkans overrun by Germany, Italy--Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Greece, Crete. Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria fall into Axis camp. Germany comes to the aid of Italy in Africa.

May U.S. suspends diplomatic relations with Germany and Italy.

June 22: Hitler invades Russia: No ultimatum, no declaration. Huge front 1800 miles; Germany attacks on 3 axes. First counterattack Nov-Dec 1941.

The Atlantic Charter. FDR and Churchill meet August 11-12 in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland. After talks they issue a joint statement of war aims against the Axis.

• Renounced territorial aggrandizement
• Opposed territorial changes against will of people
• Self determination of form of government
• Easing international trade
• Improve social, economic conditions for world's people
• Freedom from want and fear
• Disarmament of aggressors, permanent peace structure

Winter 1941-42: Napoleon revisited. FDR agrees to aid Russia—$1B in Lend Lease.

Oct 17: U.S.S. Kearny attacked by U-boat, 11 killed.

Oct 30: Reuben James sunk, 2/3 of crew of about 200 perish.

Nov 17. Armed merchantmen are now authorized. Step by step, closer and closer to war.

Nov. Ambassador Joseph Grew (to Japan) warns FDR that Japan may attack the U.S.

Nov 27: Pacific commanders warned that Japanese fleet has left home waters.

December 7: Pearl Harbor. Strong sense of national purpose--right and wrong clear. No question about the mission: defeat the axis as quickly and decisively as possible.

Japanese take Philippines, Guam, Wake, Hong Kong in short order. Prince of Wales and Repulse sunk.

See "Day of Infamy"

Pearl Harbor. In class we will discuss various theories about FDR and Pearl Harbor. Suffice it to say here that there is no credible evidence of his complicity or knowledge of the attack in any way. See books by Gordon w. Prange: At Dawn we Slept; Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History. Both these works cover Pearl Harbor in great detail.

Return to History 122 Part 3

Copyright © Henry J. Sage 1996-2003

Updated September 9, 2001