America and the First World War

Woodrow Wilson and the Great War

Woodrow Wilson: Doctor in the White House

Born Staunton, Va., December 29, 1856. Father a Presbyterian minister. Moved to Augusta when 2. Lived in path of Sherman's march. Educated largely at home until 9. One year at Davidson, then to Princeton. Class of 1879, 38/106.

Tried law at University of Virginia Law school, withdrew. Went to Johns Hopkins University to study politics and history. In 1885 published “Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics,” later accepted as his Ph.D. dissertation, awarded in 1886. Married in 1885, had 3 daughters, was a good father.

Wilson was always interested in politics, very ambitious. A severe intellectual and admirer of Robert E. Lee; God a strong factor in Wilson's life. "The very conception of America is based upon the validity of the judgments of the average man."

Professor, football coach at various schools, including Wesleyan, Bryn Mawr, Connecticut. In 1889 The State published. In 1890 he goes to Princeton, becomes popular teacher. In 1902 he is the first non-clergyman to become president. Institutes many reforms, wrestles with faculty.

Grim, dry, ascetic, professorial. Got his academic bent from his father's influence. Had an attitude of moral superiority. Such attitudes complicated Wilson's political life and handicapped him. He had few close friends, but in close circles he could be witty and charming. Voted most popular member of Princeton faculty 4 times. "The finest mind on public life"--R.S. Baker.

In 1910 WW invited to run for N.J. governor; resigns P.U., is elected. Fought machine politics, built reputation as reformer, although called "conservative if not reactionary." New Jersey was a leader in the Progressive movement. In 1912, after endorsement by Bryan, Wilson nominated by Progressive Democrats on 46th ballot. Wins in Taft-TR split. Gov. T.R. Marshall of Indiana is V.P.

Wilson a "transitional figure in the emergence of the new consciousness." Self-righteousness. Was no shy violet in politics--but "ambitious, capable . . . and of a disconcerting ruthlessness." Maybe had his eye on White House all along. Physically a wreck--headaches, indigestion.

Wilson's wife dies in 1914, he marries Edith Galt in 1915. She becomes first woman acting president of the United States. See Progressive chapter for details on administration of domestic issues. Tariffs, Philippine Independence high priorities.

World War I

Looking back over the history of Nazi Germany, it is hard for Americans today to imagine that early in the last century we might well have gone to war on the side of Germany against England and France, countries we now consider longtime friends.

The background of World War I, covered elsewhere in these pages, was little known to most Americans. Dealing with a huge influx of immigrants, ongoing industrialization, labor disputes and the great reform movement of the Progressive Era, Americans were little interested in foreign affairs, even after the successful Spanish-American War. When World War I broke out in 1914, the attitude of the typical American was probably something on the order of, “There they go again!”—although Europe had been relatively peaceful for the previous century.

President Wilson, consistent with what he perceived to be the national mood about such things, quickly issued a proclamation of neutrality calling for Americans to be neutral not only in their actions, but also in their thoughts, a very difficult task, given that about one-third of all Americans had very close ties to the Old World. As news from the warring nations reached the country, however, Americans found it difficult to ignore the reports of atrocities, the massive slaughters on the battlefields, the terrifying new weapons and the huge personal and social costs of the conflict of a magnitude never before seen. Both sides, the Allies—Great Britain and France—, and the Central Powers—Germany and Austria—began economic warfare that soon affected the United States. Before long American cargoes were being captured, merchant ships diverted, and all the older practices of war such as had drawn us into the conflict in 1812 against Great Britain arose once more.

In 1914-15, however, there was a great difference: a new weapon appeared, the “undersea boat” (U Boot) or submarine. Fragile and not very maneuverable, submarines on the surface of the water were almost defenseless even against armed merchant ships since they could easily be rammed and sunk. Thus the tactics which evolved called for submarines to shoot first and ask questions later; the traditional practice of firing warning shots and threatening the neutral vessel with a boarding party was no longer viable. Soon many ships were sunk, and civilian passengers were lost, including a number of Americans.

The most famous sinking was that of the Lusitania in May 1915. The Germans had placed notices in American newspapers warning them to stay out of the war zone they created around the British Isles. When the Lusitania sailed she was apparently a passenger ship, and her hold contained a large cargo of ammunition bound for Great Britain. Thus when the Lusitania was sunk, although many people were outraged for humanitarian reasons (over 100 souls perished), the United States did not immediately decide to go to war. Soon thereafter, however, President Wilson called upon the Germans to cease unrestricted submarine warfare—that meant to stop sinking without warning ships which might be carrying neutral civilian passengers, and the Germans, not wanting to draw American into the war, consented.

This situation prevailed until after the election of 1916. Prior to that election Woodrow Wilson had pursued his progressive goals and had become an effective leader in domestic issues. In foreign policy, as has been seen in his actions regarding Mexico and South America, he was something of an idealist, and certainly an interventionist. Nevertheless, his lofty attitudes toward the European conflict seemed to sit well with Americans, and in the election campaign of 1916 the slogan that brought Wilson victory was, “He kept us out of war.” While that was technically true, Wilson himself knew that the Germans could drawn us into war at any time, which they did.

The costs of the war, as has been stated elsewhere, were horrendous. Soldiers died by the tens of thousands; millions of bullets and artillery shells were fired; poison gas and barbed wire, the machine gun and heavy artillery made the life of the infantryman a hellish nightmare, as well as the miles of trenches with very poor sanitation another comfort facilities. By 1917 both sides had bled and suffered almost unbearably—it seemed as though the carnage would never and end. Germany finally decided to try one big push. Russia, apparently neutralized by both the ineffectiveness of the Czarist army and by the impending Bolshevik Revolution, was no longer a serious factor in the East. So the German high command decided to focus attention upon the West and planned a huge offensive for 1917 and 1918 to try to end the war once and for all. As part of that plan, they made a decision to resume unrestricted submarine warfare.

When news of that decision reached Washington, Wilson was pushed to his limit, and the situation was exacerbated by the infamous Zimmermann telegram, in which the foreign ministry in Berlin instructed its minister in Mexico to approach the Mexican government and urge them to join Germany in a fight against the United States, in exchange for which they would help Mexico redeem the territory they had lost to the United States as a result of the Mexican War—that is, most of the southwestern United States, including California.

In order to get a good feel for President Wilson’s handling of the war issue, one should read carefully the excerpts from his statements and speeches contained on this site.

Once having declared war, the United States mobilized four million men and sent two million of them to fight in France. Although the French were desperate because of near mutinies and desertions and wanted to feed the American soldiers into the lines piecemeal, General John J. Pershing, the American commander, insisted that American units fight together under American leaders. Eventually 42 American divisions took part in the contest, entering fighting in significant numbers in the summer of 1918. Although untested, the Americans quickly grasped the tempo of modern warfare and became a significant factor in holding back and eventually repelling the German onslaught. By late September and early October, 1918, the Germans, although still on French soil, were in full retreat, and the end of October the German high command sued for peace based upon Wilson's 14 Points. Thus, although the Americans had participated in the war for only the few final months of the long and terribly bloody four-year conflict, they made a significant contribution to the outcome of the war. It is entirely feasible that the Germans would have won had the Americans stayed out.

When he set out to create arming “to make the world safe for democracy,” Wilson kept his progressive ideals in mind. He worried about Americans’ willingness to accept the war, and he did everything possible to sell the war to the American people. He instituted a draft rather than relying on volunteers, simply because it was more efficient. He created a Committee on Public Information that provided for posters bearing patriotic mottoes, speeches for theaters, and so on. Wilson also called for legislation to prevent dissent and sabotage the Espionage Act, the Trading with the Enemy Act, and the Sedition Act. Civil libertarians have found such measures excessive, but they are typical in time of war. The American people probably supported the war far more willingly that Wilson imagined, perhaps because he had doubted the wisdom of taking America in for so long himself.

In any case, Americans in combat fought fiercely—the Germans called American Marines “Teufelhunden”—“Devildogs”—and American civilians got into the war mood with a vengeance, making life difficult for German-Americans and anyone who seemed less than patriotic.

The Paris Peace Conference, 1919, and the Treaty of Versailles

When the Germans surrendered, President made a fateful decision—he himself would go to Versailles to help write the terms of peace. (He had earlier declared it unthinkable that America should have no role in that great enterprise.) He wanted a “peace without victory,” a generous peace, but the allied leaders who had suffered so fearfully would have none of it. Wilson’s goals, outlined in his Fourteen Points, called for a lasting peace based on national self-determination among the nations and a League of Nations, and that was partially realized. Wilson was unable, however, to prevent the victors from saddling Germany with enormous reparations and restrictions which in retrospect can be called at best unfair.

Wilson took no Senators with him to Paris, nor any Republican leaders, a serious flaw in his desire to achieve his goals, as the United States Senate was controlled by the Republican Party. Thus while Wilson was in Europe for the best part of six months, having been greeted by the European people as a conquering hero, if not a modern Messiah, Republican leaders in the Senate fretted and stewed and awaited his return with bated breath.

When Wilson presented the treaty of Versailles to the Senate, they balked. Wilson was tired and in poor health from his exertions in Europe, and was in no mood to compromise. Neither was Senate later Henry Cabot Lodge. It soon became apparent that Wilson would not accept the treaty with the reservations which the Senate proposed, and the Senate would not ratify the treaty as presented to them, and thus a standoff existed. Wilson decided, unwisely as it turned out, to take his show on the road. He set off on a train trip around United States designed to take his case to the American people in the hope that they would pressure the Senators to accept this treaty without reservations. While on the trip, Wilson became ill and was rushed back to Washington, where he suffered a serious stroke. For weeks Wilson was unable to conduct his business, and for several months, his wife, Edith Galt Wilson, became for all practical purposes the acting president of the United States. She controlled access to her husband, told him what to read and what to sign, and delivered all communications to and from the ailing President.

In the end, the United States never ratified the treaty of Versailles and concluded a separate peace with Germany in 1921.

Documents