FROM RESISTANCE TO REVOLUTION

Signing the Declaration

Quick review:

• The Coercive or “Intolerable” Acts fail to isolate Boston, but rather spread discontent and fear to the other colonies.
  • (Patrick Henry on “Liberty”)
• The King and Parliament run out of patience in 1774-5. George III—“Submit or else!”
• Sympathy for he colonists exists, but also resentment—the standard of living of Americans was not bad—not much great wealth, but less poverty than elsewhere. Edmund Burke in Parliament: “Your scheme will yield nothing but "Discontent, disorder, disobedience.”
• Virginia governor dissolves assembly—they repair to Raleigh Tavern on Duke of Gloucester Street, pass resolution in favor of Continental Congress. George Washington compares lot of colonists with that of slaves, says the “crisis is arrived.”
• The First Continental Congress convenes September 5, 1774, in Philadelphia. Modd is still for reconciliation, though hope is dim. Sam and John Adams already leaning toward independence, but time has not yet arrived for that. Washington: “The last thing any thinking man in all North America could wish for is independence from Great Britain.”
• Congress adopts principle of the Suffolk Resolves: Colonies owe no obedience to Intolerable Acts, boycott all British goods after December 1
• Declaration of Rights, List of Grievances, etc.

The Real Revolution Begins : The "Shots Heard Around the World"

In 1775 Lord North's reconciliation plan is rejected by the Americans, and Massachusetts is declared in a “state of rebellion.” General Gage is now Governor of Massachusetts, an ominous development in the eyes of the patriots. The Massachusetts colonists, preparing for the worst, begin stockpiling stores and powder and training militias--the “minutemen” who are to respond instantly to any military threat. General Gage's spies learn of the quasi-military preparations being made by the patriots, and he issues instructions to his military leaders to arrest the rebellious leaders (he knows who many of them are.) His troops are then to march to Concord to seize the military stores being gathered there.

Paul Revere's ride on the night of April 18. The patriot line of communication discovers General Gage's intentions, and Paul Revere, Dr. Samuel Prescott and William Dawes are to be given signals about the British advance across the Charles River, “one if by land, two if by sea,” with lanterns to be hung in the Old North Church. Revere, Dawes and Prescott get the signal and ride off, warning John Hancock and Sam Adams, who flee to avoid arrest. Revere is captured but is later released.

April 19 In the morning General Gage's 700 troops under command of Lt. Col. Francis Smith are marching toward Concord to capture stores. The American minutemen, having been alerted by Paul Revere, Dawes, and Prescott, are gathered on Lexington green under the command of Captain John Parker. The British commander orders the 70 American to marhc off, but a shot is fired (source unknown) and a brief skirmish breaks out, leaving 8 Americans dead and 10 wounded. The militia (minutemen) gather at Concord Bridge, and after destroying some supplies, the British are forced to retreat. As the British march back toward Boston, more minutemen arrive along the route and harrass the British all the way, inflicting heavy losses. General Gage sends out relief party, but over 100 are killed.

Now that the shooting has begun in earnest, it will very difficult to turn back. George III declares that “Blows will decide!” how it turns out.

THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS

The Second Continental Congres convenes on May 10, 1775. The question is, now that the fighting has started—is it too late for reconciliation? Probably, but independence is still not on the table, though more and more lean in that direction. This Congress is a more radical and more distinguished group than the First Congress and becomes, de facto, the government of the United States during the war until the Articles of Confederation are adopted in 1781.

On June 15 George Washington, who shows up in for Congress in a new uniform) is appointed Commander in Chief, a deliberate act sponsored by John Adams to make it clear that this is an American revolution, not just a Massachusetts rebellion. Although Congress decides that there is to be one, army, not thirteen, eachj colony is still to some extent reluctant to abandon its own interests in favor of the general cause.

Dickinson composed “Olive Branch Petition,” sent to King George III 5 July 1775.

• Created a Navy
• Negotiated treaties, sent out diplomats. Invitation to Canada to join rebellion as “fellow sufferers.”
• Declared independence
• Jefferson's “Rights”

The BALANCE of FORCES:

• England was complacent about its military authority and power, but it had to fight an offensive war, defeat colonies in order to stamp out rebellion, but colonists (Americans) only had to get a draw, i.e., last long enough to wear the British down. It took seven years. The Declaration of Independence rules out any possibility of compromise.
• British forces “enormous”; largest expedition ever sent overseas. British Resources: Money, Men, Ships and hired foreign mercenaries.
• Military task takes priority
• British have numerical advantage, 32,000-19,000; also better equipped, trained, etc., but tactics inflexible. Also, America vast, distant.

LOYALISTS: Strength of Tories: They comprised about 1/5 of the total colonial population, but were unorganized. The British failed to exploit their Loyalist assets fully and did not completely trust them. In all, about 21,000 loyalists fought on the British side. Those who had a vested interest in the British system tended to remain loyal—clergy, officials, etc. Others of non-English background wanted royal protection, and there had been heavy influx of immigrants, 1763-1775. Anyone who feared the impact of the revolution was likely to be a Loyalist. In the South, where Loyalist strength was strong, the fighting was the most bitter of the revolution (as depicted somewhat accurately in the film “The Patriot.”)

British Sea Power . England could call the shots, determine the time and place of the fighting. The colonists were thus on defensive from the beginning. In general, British strategy was to divide and conquer. The American Navy as small, but privateers did well. John Paul Jones became the most famous naval hero, though there were others.

General Gage was the British Commander-in-Chief at the outset. Generals Howe, Clinton & Burgoyne were under him. All in all, the British top command was not too good; they committed serious blunders. A British minister said: “I do not know whether our generals frighten the Americans, but they certainly frighten me.”

The Patriots had the home ground, experience with firearms, fine leadership in George Washington, a better rifle, and experience in French and Indian War. On the other hand they lacked training & discipline. Short-term enlistments hurt, as army strength rose and fell precipitously.

THE EARLY FIGHTING: THE WAR IN THE NORTH

1775

May 10 Ethan Allen captures Ft. Ticonderoga. Cannon dragged through wilderness to Boston, heroic feat. Allen and Benedict Arnold take Crown Point May 12.

June 17 BUNKER HILL: Pyrrhic victory for British; Gage loses over 1000 men, Americans 400. All that made it a vic­tory was the fact that the British had the ground when the battle was over. One British officer said, in effect, “another victory like this are we're finished.”

July 3 WASHINGTON TAKES COMMAND. Appointed June 15. “Is this the rabble with which I am to defend America?”

August King declares colonies in a state of rebellion. British public wants retaliation, not reconciliation.

[1775]

August Schuyler's campaign against Quebec begins. Fear that Carleton plans invasion.

September Gage recalled, relieved by General William Howe; Sir Guy Carleton in command in Canada.

December Benedict Arnold commissioned by Washington to invade Canada. Joins forces with Montgomery, who had relieved Schuyler (poor health). Assault on Quebec ends in disaster. Montgomery killed, Arnold wounded. Americans lose 400 men, retreat to Ft. Ticonderoga in summer of 1776.

1776

March 4 Americans occupy Dorchester Heights in Boston; artillery commands British positions. Washington's force grows to about 20,000 + militia.

March 17 Howe evacuates to Halifax. Washington moves to New York to prepare for next expected British attack.

Congress debates purposes of war. Rumors and talk of independence, but many not enthusiastic. Drastic step with severe reprisals possible in case of failure.

• Navy created October 1775
• Marine Corps provided for November 10
• Privateers authorized March 1776
• Congress swamped with offers from foreign officers, many bogus.
• French begin secret aid of America with money, supplies. Create bogus corporation.

WASHINGTON as a MILITARY COMMANDER

George Washington is considered the “Indispensable Man,” an epithet he probably deserves. Paradox: One of the least revolutionary men in America was chosen to lead the American Revolution.Washington was a great revolutionary leader, though not a brilliant general.  His most significant achievement was probably holding the revolution together through some very difficult years.  He eventually got significant assistance from European officers, most notably the Marquis de Lafayette, Baron deKalb, Count Pulaski, Kosciusko, Baron von Steuben and others. Washington’s goal was to create a regular 18th century style army and fight traditional battles against the British, but that goal was difficult to achieve under circumstances.

About Washington: He new very little of science of war—he was not a theorist. Had not studied the great published works on war. He was not very good at training—that he turned over to others, especially the Europeans. He was able, loyal, cautious, devoted, patient—brought great dignity to the cause. His gift was character. Uncorrupted, untempted by power, respectful of civil authority even when he had much reason to be contemptuous. Overall he was unquestionably a wise and good man and dedicated leader—cared for his officers and men and commanded their loyalty, respect and affection.

American strategy reactionary of necessity—keep out of harm's way. Washington's problem of lack of unity (“states' rights.”) Frustration of Patriots: 2/5 of total; Paine's “summer soldiers.” Length of the war unified the Americans. Washington's mission is to contain the British in Boston while building up American army. Washington not pleased with what he assumed command of: “Is this the rabble with which I am to defend America?”

Had 4 major generals under him

• Artemas Ward—commanded Massachusetts militia.
• Charles Lee, veteran of British army.
• Philip Schuyler—Hudson Valley patroon
• Israel Putnam—ex-tavern keeper
• Also Horatio Gates (Adjutant General), Nathaniel Greene, Francis Marion

Washington would eventually have help of Lafayette, de Kalb, Pulaski, Koscuisko, von Steuben. Washington's goal is to establish a regular 18th century army and fight traditional battles against British. Difficult to achieve under circumstances..

Early Disasters Test the American Will: "The Times That Try Men's Souls"

During July and August 1776, English forces routed the American army on Long Island, captured New York City, and forced Washington to retreat through New Jersey. As Washington's army fled toward Philadelphia, the English military authorities collected thousands of oaths of allegiance from Americans, many of whom had supported independence. The cause seemed lost, but Washington rekindled the flame of resistance by capturing two English outposts in New Jersey—Trenton and Princeton.

The NEW YORK-NEW JERSEY CAMPAIGNS, 1776-1777

1776

April Washington arrives in New York, the army having been marched from Boston. The British fleet from Halifax under William Howe arrives off Staten Island in July, lands 10,000 men unopposed. Admiral Richard Howe arrives with additional men; British forces number 32,000 by August, including 9,000 Hessians.

August Howe lands 20,000 troops on Long Island. American army divided; Putnam in command on Long Island; remainder in Manhattan. Battle of Long Island fought August 27—near disaster for Americans—forced to retreat to Manhattan.

September British land 12,000 troops on Manhattan from East River; Washington retreats northward. Battle of Harlem Heights 16 September.

October Battle of White Plains forces Washington to retreat further, give up Hudson River Forts Washington and Lee. Washington retreats to New Jersey, then into Pennsylvania.

December American morale low after repeated retreats, defeats. Howe goes into winter quarters in New York, leaves 1,400 Hessians at Trenton. Washington learns they are unprepared, gets reinforcements on December 20. Crosses Delaware December 25, attacks on 26th. Hessians completely surprised. Captures 900 + many supplies with only 5 casualties. Follows up with victory over Cornwallis at Princeton on January 3, 1777. In 10 days Washington's tactical victories rebuild morale; Washington retires to Morristown. “Brilliant.” (Frederick the Great) British evacuate New Jersey.

THE MOVE FOR INDEPENDENCE

The GREAT DECLARATION: Reasons

• The Hessians were hated—the idea that the King would hire foreigners to fight his subjects infuriated many.
• Paine's Common Sense: “'Tis Time to Part” Paine's work influenced many
• Lee's Resolution for independence is introduced June 7, 1776; after much heated debate, it is passed July 2.
• Jefferson's Declaration
• Paine's “American Crisis”: “These are the times that try men's souls.”
• General Howe's Leadership: Conqueror or Peacemaker: Was empowered only to accept surrender, nothing more.
• Link to Signers of the Declaration

1777

SARATOGA AND THE FRENCH ALLIANCE

The PHILADELPHIA Campaign

In the spring of 1777 Howe decides to abandon New Jersey and invade Pennsylvania by sea. He re-embarks at Staten Island and lands South of Philadelphia at Head-of-Elk. Washington's army is near Wilmington. On September 9 to 11 Washington is driven back at Brandywine Creek. the Americans retreat toward Philadelphia. Failures of intelligence cause a good (but too complicated) plan of Washington to fail; he loses about 1,000 men to some 500 British casualties.

On September 19 Anthony Wayne is routed by a surprise British night attack at Paoli. Congress evacuates Philadelphia; Washington is given near dictatorial power. On September 26 the British enter Philadelphia and are warmly welcomes by the loyalist population.

On October 4 the Americans are routed at Germantown with losses of 700 casualties and 400 captured. Howe settles into Philadelphia, Washington moves into winter quarters at Valley Forge. Washngton has suffered two defeats, but neither proves disastrous. During the bitter winter at Valley Forge, Baron von Steuben drills and trains the American troops, imparting discipline and tactical skills. Still, it is a bitter winter of many hardships.

The Conway cabal also occurs in fall 1777. Irish Colonel Thomas Conway tries to undermine Washington, eventually resigns on December 23.

1778

On February 6, 1778,a Franco-American Alliance was concluded and two treaties were signed, commercial and military. France and England were soon at war. In March Sir Henry Clinton replaced Howe and moved back to New York. The Americans reoccupied Philadelphia on June 18, and Washington decided to pursure the retreating British.

The Battle of Monmouth.  In May Sir Henry Clinton replaced General Howe and, hearing that a French fleet was en route to America, decided to move his army back to New York. The Americans reoccupied Philadelphia on June 18 and Washington decided to pursue the retreating British across New Jersey.  On June 28 Washington caught up with the British at Monmouth Courthouse, New Jersey. General Charles Lee was in command of an advance unit with orders to attack at the first opportunity.  Orders to Generals Lafayette and Anthony Wayne became confused and Lee precipitously ordered a retreat, which brought on a counter attack by Clinton.

Washington soon arrived on the scene and, furious at Lee's order for retreat, is said to have sworn so forcefully that the leaves shook on the trees.  Washington rallied his men, and with the discipline instilled by the training of Baron von Steuben, the Americans met the British squarely. Although the outcome was indecisive, it was clear that the Americans had fought the British to a standstill.  General Clinton withdrew and took his army back into New York, and Washington moved north of the city and settled into camp near White Plains, about 20 miles north of Manhattan. After Monmouth General Washington accused General Lee of “misbehavior before the enemy, disrespect, disobedience.” Lee was court martialed and suspended.

The war in the North thus remained a stalemate—with Clinton boxed in New York, and  Washington holding the Hudson River line.

Next—>The War in the South and West, 1778-1781