1761. Because the British government was short of funds near the end of the Seven Years (French and Indian) War, and because officers serving in America had observed the growing prosperity of the colonies, the British government renewed the Authorization of Writs of Assistance—court orders that gave customs officers the authority to conduct general searches of any premises for contraband, without what we now refer to as “probable cause.” The exact nature of what was being sought did not have to be shown, and suspected locations did not have to be named. Many New England merchants had become skillful at evading the British mercantile system and had become experts in smuggling. James Otis Protests renewal of Writs of Assistance, which had first been issued in 1751.

Summary of Conditions in 1763

In 1763 the British empire stretched around the world, from North America to India and points in between.  The casual, haphazard system of colonial governance would no longer be sufficient.  The mighty empire required administration and leadership far beyond that to which the colonies had become accustomed.  Furthermore, the long series of wars have left the British deeply in debt, and her far-flung possessions would be costly to manage.  All the same, Great Britain was a wealthy nation, though a great portion of the wealth lay in private hands.

British officers who had served in America returned home to report a prosperous colonial enterprise, whose cities of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, while perhaps not quite up to the standards of London or Paris, nevertheless contained a population many of whom were quite well off. With a population of approximately 1.5 million, America was now too large to be ignored and wealthy enough to be exploited.

The influence of the Enlightenment had touched America and radically new ideas of government including that of republicanism had reached across the Atlantic.  Because of such things as the Puritan emphasis on reading and the general prosperity of the average citizen, Americans were quite familiar with the new ideas being propounded by the likes of Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, and other philosophes of the French salons and were well versed in political philosophy from reading John Locke. American ideology also emphasized the idea of “virtue” as a necessary component of political structure—an idea from the Enlightenment.

Of all the shortcomings of British management of their American cousins, their failure to perceive the political sophistication of the colonists was a crucial flaw. (Failures caused by not understanding one's potential adversaries has, of course, by no means been limited to the British in 1760.) If a second major misunderstanding lay in the British perception that although they had neglected to enforce various import and export restrictions for decades, the colonists would understand their responsibilities as parts of the empire and conform to new and stricter controls.

By 1760 smuggling had become a major American enterprise.  Given that it was expensive to maintain revenue cutters and other patrol vessels along a thinly populated American coast filled with many bays, inlets and rivers in which vessels could hide themselves, the British had found it far from cost-effective to try to enforce navigation laws. In 1761 the British began to reinforce writs of assistance, laws which granted customs officials the authority to conduct random searches of property to seek out goods on which required duties had not been paid, not only in public establishments but in private homes.  Representing New England's merchants, attorney James Otis protested against these general warrants, claiming that “a man's house is his castle,” and that violating its sanctity was a “wanton exercise” of power.

The Proclamation Line of 1763: Once the French had been driven out of North America, the British government realized that the only threat to the security of the American colonies would come from the Indians. Understandably wishing to reduce the cost of maintaining their empire, the British felt that if the North Americans would not interfere with the Indians, regarding other frontiers would be much less demanding and less costly.  Experience had shown that Indian difficulties would come to the fore when settlers encroached on Indian lands. When in 1763 the British government issued a Royal Proclamation forbidding colonists to expand across the Appalachian Mountains, cutting off access to the rich lands in the Ohio, Tennessee, Cumberland and Kanawha River Valleys, the colonists felt cheated because they had sacrificed so much to defeat the French and Indians. The colonists, now that the French were no longer present to rile and equip the Indians, saw the vast open reaches beyond the mountains as greener pastures to which they were entitled.  In reaction to the land over the mountains being off limits, the American response was: "What were we fighting for?"

1764. The North American Revenue (Sugar) Act and the Currency Act.

The next step was the American revenue act of 1764, and it quickly became apparent that the purpose of the act was to extract revenue from America. The molasses act of 1733 had placed a tax of six pence per gallon on sugar and molasses imported into the colonies. In 1764 the British lowered the tax to three pence, but now decided to enforce it. In addition, taxes were to be placed on other items such as wines, coffee and textile products, and other restrictions were applied.The Act authorized Vice Admiralty Courts which took the place of jury trials; judges terms were changed to “at the pleasure of the Crown,” etc.

The Currency Act prohibited “legal tender” paper in Virginia, which reduced the circulation of paper money in America, which further burdened the colonies, who were always short of hard currency. Americans were becoming increasingly leery of what they perceived as the British attempts to milk more profits from the colonies.  Meetings were called to protest the law, and the idea of “taxation without representation” began to take shape.

The Stamp Act Crisis of 1765

Although the American colonists were unhappy with the restrictions on trade and various import and export duties, they were not necessarily philosophically opposed to the right of the British to control trade, especially as they found it easy to avoid the attendant duties. The Stamp Act of 1765, however, opened a new door. John Adams and others believed that the Stamp Act was the point at which the real American Revolution began, in “the hearts and minds” of the people, as Adams put it. The Stamp Act caused a furious storm in the streets of New York, Boston, Richmond and elsewhere.

The Act required that revenue stamps be placed on all newspapers, pamphlets, licenses, leases and other legal documents, and even on such innocuous items as playing cards. The Revenue from the act, which was to be collected by colonial American customs agents, was intended for “defending, protecting and securing” the colonies—it had to be paid in hard currency, which was scarce in America. The use of the revenue did not bother anyone; it was the fact that it was being collected solely for revenue purposes without the consent of the colonies bothered all kinds of people, especially those who conducted business of any kind.  Those who objected to the act included journalists, lawyers, merchants and other businessmen, the kind of people who are likely to be community leaders and well-known public figures such as men like James Otis, John Adams and wealthy businessman John Hancock.

The Stamp Act of 1765 created the first direct tax ever levied on colonists.  While the colonists had evaded or avoided duties levied by the Navigation Acts, they rarely questioned their legitimacy as necessary components of mercantile policy. Direct taxes were not unknown in England, but many English saw problems for themselves in what was going on in America, and the Stamp Act had little public support at home.

The protests soon moved beyond the mere voices of opposition.  Men selected to be collectors of the new taxes were openly threatened with violence, and many resigned their posts before they had collected anything.  Sons of Liberty organizations sprang up everywhere. In Boston they resorted to violence, destroying offices, looting houses, etc. Protesters attacked Governor Hutchinson's home, with wanton destruction of property, gardens, etc. Associations were formed to encourage non importation (boycotts) of British goods. Colonial legislatures nullified the act, and shipments of stamps were destroyed. Sons of Liberty organization and committees of correspondence were formed to create a feeling of solidarity among the afflicted.

In Virginia resolutions were adopted denouncing taxation without representation. The colonists were not denying their status as British citizens subject to the crown, but rather were expressing their rights as British citizens not to be taxed without their consent through duly appointed or elected representatives. New York City merchants vowed to cease importation of British goods, and 2,000 citizens surrounded the fort where stamps were stored and plundered a British officer's house. General Gage feared the outbreak of “Civil War.” Other colonists supported economic sanctions—the Stamp Act was openly violated everywhere. The Massachusetts assembly called a Stamp Act of Congress for October 1765 in New York City. Among the resolutions passed by the Congress were the following:

Americans believed England was deliberately trying to weaken colonies, and Parliament soon realized it had blundered.

The Stamp Act Congress met in New York City and adopted a set of Resolutions.

The Stamp Act was repealed on March 18, 1766, but repeal was accompanied by the Declaratory Act, which claimed that Parliament had the right to rule the colonies in “all cases whatsoever” (including taxation.)  Members of Parliament raised the issue of “virtual representation,” meaning that Parliament governed for the benefit of all, and that the colonies were “virtually” represented in Parliament.  The idea did not fly in America—the colonists didn't buy it.

In truth the colonists benefited greatly from being part of the British Empire.  They could trade freely within the entire British colonial system which meant worldwide ports were open to them furthermore, when they traveled outside the trade routes of the empire itself they were always protected by the mighty Royal Navy.  Flying the British flag, the colonists knew that they had a staunch protector when they ventured into foreign waters. Unfortunately, the British focus their attention on the duties of the colonists rather than on the benefits they enjoyed from their position within the British Empire.

In 1765 and 1766 Quartering Acts required colonials to supply barracks for British troops in unoccupied homes, taverns, etc., which caused another crisis in New York and elsewhere.

1767.  The Townshend Acts brought new import duties, which were used in part to pay the salaries of colonial governors, which ended their dependence on the colonial legislatures and in the bargain took some control away from the colonists.  The Acts taxed tea, paper, paint, lead, etc., and authorized Writs of Assistance, Vice-Admiralty Courts and Customs Boards.  The Act brought a predictable reaction:

• Sons of Liberty urged renewed boycotts (Non-importation) of English Goods; some merchants resisted, and stores and homes were stoned.
• “Daughters of Liberty” increased domestic production of cloth, held “spinning bees,” etc. Wearing homespun clothing became a symbol of patriotism.
• All duties were soon repealed except for the tax on tea, which was retained as a token of Parliament's “right” to tax the colonies.

1770. THE “BOSTON MASSACRE”

The Boston so-called massacre was so named by colonists in the aftermath of the event, and it was widely publicized by an engraving made by Paul Revere. Actually trouble had been brewing for weeks between the soldiers and the citizens of Boston, especially among working people, who saw them as an economic threat because they took part-time work for extra pay when off duty. The soldiers, a rough lot themselves, were thus very unpopular in Boston, and things came to a head one cold evening when an unruly mob began to harass a sentry at the Customs House. The Customs House was a symbol of British authority, and when the sentry called for help, the guard was summoned. The commander of the guard literally “read the riot act” to the citizens, ordering them to disperse in the name of the Crown. In response, the mob, some of whom had been drinking, began shouting insults and pelting the soldiers with snowballs, some of which contained rocks. The tension rose, and at some point the soldiers believed they were ordered to fire. After an initial volley the firing ceased, but several Americans lay dead.

Later the officer in command, one Captain Preston, and a number of the soldiers were tried for murder, and all but one of them were found not guilty on grounds of self defense. Their advocate in court was future President of the United States, John Adams, who deplored the violence but still felt that Americans needed to conduct themselves according to the rule of law. Adams suffered from negative public opinion for defending the soldiers, but clearly showed that he was a man of principle. When the time came, he was one of the most ardent revolutionaries.

1770-73  A period of relative calm ensued as the British government tried not to provoke the colonists further.

1772.  The Gaspee affair in Rhode Island once again tested British patience. The British revenue cutter Gaspee ran aground, and during the night Americans rowed out to the cutter and set it afire, burning it to the water line. When the British investigated the next day, no one would provide any information, frustrating the British officers who sensed a “conspiracy of silence.”

1773 The Tea Act Crisis erupted over British attempts to save the East India Company.  The Boston Tea Party became a symbol of patriotic protest and rebellion, but to some it looked like random property violence against a disinterested third party, a reckless act that destroyed thousands of pounds worth of private merchandise.  In any case, it caused King George to lose whatever sympathy he may have had for the colonial cause.  Things would go downhill rapidly from here on.

1774: The Coercive or "Intolerable" Acts

• The Boston Port Act closes the port from June 1, 1774, until the tea is paid for.
• The Act for the Imperial Administration of Justice. Trials of officials are moved to London.
• The new Quartering Act requires soldiers to be put up in private homes if necessary, which outrages the colonists.
• The Massachusetts Government Act provides for all officials, governor's council to be appointed by the Crown.
• Quebec Act. Non-representative government in Canadian colony partial to Catholic Church.
• Edmund Burke, sympathetic to the colonists, announces in Parliament: Your scheme will yield nothing but "Discontent, disorder, disobedience."
• The purpose was to isolate Boston, make an example, but attempts backfired: colonists rallied around Boston.  In Virginia Jefferson called for fasting and prayer in response to Boston Port Act.
• George Washington says the "crisis is arrived."

Continental Association of 1774 is formed, an organization for economic resistance to “hit them in the pocketbook.” In fact, British merchants who were doing a brisk business in America were, if not sympathetic to the colonists' cause, certainly worried about the implications for them of the growing rift.

Dominion theory espoused by Jefferson and others maintained that the colonies were subject to Crown but not Parliament. Each colony, like England, was a separate realm. Members of Parliament William Pitt and Burke argued for reconciliation “in our own best interests.” Jefferson's ideas are later reflected in attitudes about American government after the revolutionary war is over—one can even at this juncture sense a distant murmur of “states' rights.”

The Suffolk Resolves passed first in Virginia declare the Intolerable Acts null and void.

1774  The First Continental Congress: An American Government, although in reality it was a congress of 55 ambassadors from still independent (of each other) colonies-they saw themselves as independent entities, not yet ready to "hang together."

• Committees of Correspondence in 12 colonies send delegates to Philadelphia. Congress convenes September 5, 1774.
• Members include Sam Adams, John Adams, John Jay, Patrick Henry, George Washington, Richard Henry Lee, John Dickinson, et. al.
• They adopt the principle of the Suffolk Resolves: The Colonies owe no obedience to Intolerable Acts
• They agree to a boycott of all British goods after December 1
• Congress issues a Declaration of Rights, List of Grievances, etc.
• But no talk yet of independence. Washington: "The last thing any thinking man in all North America could wish for is independence from Great Britain"-1774

In 1775 Lord North's plan for reconciliation is rejected; Massachusetts is declared to be in a state of rebellion.  The colonists begin stockpiling stores, powder.  General Gage is instructed to arrest leaders and seize stores.  Word gets to the patriot leaders on the evening of April 18 and Paul Revere makes his famous ride.  Next morning, April 19, General Gage sends 700 men to capture stores at Concord.  Americans, warned by Revere and Dawes, assemble at Lexington green and shots break out, killing 8 and wounding 10.  More militia (minutemen) gather at Concord Bridge-the British are forced to retreat to Boston, suffering heavy losses along the way. Gage sends out relief party, but over 100 are killed.

1775.  The Second Continental Congress convenes May 10, 1775, after fighting has started-is it too late for reconciliation?

• A more radical and more distinguished group than the First Continental Congress.
• This group becomes the de facto government of the United States during the war until the Articles of Confederation are adopted in 1781.
• June 15: Washington is appointed Commander in Chief, nominated by John Adams.
• Dickinson composes the "Olive Branch Petition," which is sent to King George III 5 July 1775.
• Congress creates a Navy and Marine Corps, sends out diplomats to negotiate treaties, issues an invitation to Canadians to join their rebellion as "fellow sufferers."  Canada says "No, thank you," becomes a refuge for loyalists
• In July, 1776, the Second Continental Congress performs its most significant act-it declares independence.

American Revolution 1775-1778