The New Republic:
The United States, 1789-1800,
Part 2
Copyright © 2005-6, Henry J. Sage
Diplomacy in the West
The Federalists regained some popularity with other treaties that extracted major concessions in the West. Indian resistance in the Northwest Territory was crushed and Spain agreed to favorable American terms in Pinckney's Treaty. Ironically, the unpopular Jay Treaty brought advantages to the United States in the West. English posts in the Northwest Territory had supplied and encouraged Indian raids on American settlements. The U.S. Army failed to defeat the Indians until the battle of Fallen Timbers (1794), which led to the Treaty of Greenville and Indian removal from what is now Ohio. While the Indians were in this desperate condition, the English deserted them and pulled back into Canada.
In the Southwest, news of Jay's Treaty was interpreted by the Spanish as an Anglo-American alliance against Spain. To prevent this, the Spanish suddenly offered to open the Mississippi, to settle the disputed border between Spanish Florida and the United States, and to cease supplying the Indians. These offers resulted in the Treaty of San Lorenzo (Pinckney's Treaty).
Whiskey Rebellion Linked to Republican Incendiaries
The Federalists branded the civil unrest caused by the Whiskey Rebellion as Republican agitation. Jefferson felt the Federalists used the episode as an excuse to create an army for the purpose of intimidating Republicans. Washington himself led an army into Pennsylvania to put down the rebellion, and commanded more troops than he had during the Revolution.
In 1794, a local tax protest in western Pennsylvania was interpreted by the Federalists as a major insurrection instigated by the Republicans. Jefferson, on the other hand, believed that the crisis had been invented by the Federalists as a pretext to create a strong army to intimidate Republicans.
Fallen Timbers 1794 opens gateway to West; Mad Anthony Wayne
WASHINGTON’S FAREWELL: Legacy of the “Indispensable Man”
With no limits on the presidency, 2 terms seemed a modest tenure. Washington sent his farewell address draft to Alexander Hamilton, who worked on it for 3 months; Washington used Hamilton's draft “substantially.”
The Senate, elected by the state legislatures, was seen as a balance against the excessive democracy of the House, to thwart, when necessary, the will of the people. Elbridge Gerry: The mass of people are “neither wise nor good.” Full democracy in America was still decades off.
Three years later, 12/14/1799, Washington dies; John Marshall informs Congress: "First in war, first in peace, first in the hearts of his countrymen." British ships flew flags at half mast. Byron’s "Ode to Napoleon"—"The Cincinnatus of the West"
Adams a decent man who was not fully appreciated; he deserved to be reelected; but Jefferson was also deserving.
The ELECTION of 1796
Hamilton's attempt to manipulate the election of 1796 backfired, angering newly elected President John Adams and heightening tensions within the Federalist party. During the John Adams administration, the Federalist party controlled the government and tried to suppress the Republican party. The Federalists failed because they could not remain united.
THE XYZ AFFAIR:
During the first years of Adams's presidency, the relations between the United States and France steadily deteriorated. This period of increasing hostility became known as the Quasi-War. An American commission sent by Adams to pursue a peaceful settlement was met by French officials who arrogantly demanded a bribe as the price for negotiations. This so-called XYZ Affair humiliated and infuriated Americans.
Because of the Jay Treaty, France began to treat the United States as an unfriendly nation. French vessels even fired on American ships in the Atlantic (the Quasi-War). When Adams sent ambassadors to France, the French government demanded a bribe before negotiations could even begin (the XYZ Affair). Americans were outraged, and Federalists attempted to use anti-French sentiment to crush the Republicans.
THE FIRST TEST OF STATE V. FEDERAL RIGHTS: THE ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS
The Federalists used the outpouring of anti-French sentiment in America as an excuse to increase the nation's military defenses, a move intended to stifle internal political opposition as well as thwart French aggression. The extreme Federalists began to build up the army, even though there was no prospect of a French invasion. The Federalists intended to use the army to stifle international opposition. Hamilton took day-to-day command of the army and filled it with officers loyal to him. All Hamilton needed was a declaration of war against France, but Adams refused to ask for one.
Purportedly measures to protect American security, the Alien and Sedition Acts were, in reality, Federalist measures designed to harass Republican spokespersons by disallowing criticism of the government. These blatantly political attempts to silence opposition ultimately proved counterproductive.
Congress could not declare war but it did pass a series of acts designed to persecute the Republicans. The Alien Enemies Act and the Alien Act gave the president power to expel any foreigner. The Naturalization Act required immigrants to reside in the United States for fourteen years before becoming eligible for citizenship. The last act, the Sedition Act, made it a crime to criticize the government. Federal courts became politicized and often enforced this law in absurd ways. Republicans were convinced that free government was on the brink of extinction.
THE KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLVES:
Jefferson and Madison responded to the Alien and Sedition Acts with the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions (1798). The Kentucky Resolutions, written by Jefferson and passed by the state of Kentucky, claimed each state had the power to decide whether acts of Congress were constitutional and if not, to nullify them. Madison's Virginia Resolutions urged the states to protect their citizens but did not assert a state's right to nullify federal law. Jefferson and Madison less interested in constitutional theory than in clarifying the differences between Republicans and Federalists.
Adams's Finest Hour
Having refused to ask Congress for a formal declaration of war against France, Adams pursued peaceful negotiations. The Convention of Mortefontaine ended the Quasi-War and restored good relations between France and the United States.
In 1799 Adams openly broke with Hamilton. The president sent another delegation to negotiate with France, and this delegation worked out an amicable settlement. The war hysteria against France vanished, and the American people began to regard Hamilton's army as a useless expense. In avoiding war with France, Adams saved the nation from the schemes of the High Federalists. In return, they made sure he lost the election of 1800.
THE PEACEFUL REVOLUTION: THE ELECTION OF 1800
The election of 1800 is perhaps most noteworthy for the peaceful transition of government leadership from one political party to that of the opposition, demonstrating that such a process could be accomplished without widespread confusion, villainy, or violence. The new president, Thomas Jefferson, tried to unite the nation by stressing in his inaugural address the republican values shared by members of each party. The election of 1800 is one of the most important in our history because the transfer of power from Federalists to Republicans was achieved peacefully.
The Federalists lost office in 1800 partly as a result of internal party disputes, but more importantly, as a result of losing touch with public opinion. The Federalists lost the election of 1800 because they were internally divided and generally unpopular. The Republicans won easily.
History 121 Part 2 | Updated September 28, 2005