The Age of Jeffersonian Democracy

Introduction

This section of the course deals with American history from 1800-1840. It comprises what are referred to as the Jeffersonian and Jacksonian ages. Jeffersonian politics, the politics of the Democratic Republican Party, known as Republicans at that time, dominated through the administrations of Jefferson and Madison. By the end of Madison's term in 1817 the Federalist party had disappeared, and for a time America had essentially a one-party system. James Monroe ran unopposed for president in 1820, and some politicians at that time began referring to themselves as National Democrats, but there was really only one party. There were many issues dividing the country, which we will discuss below.

By 1824 political divisions had begun to appear in the country, and for a time there were five potential presidential candidates. In the end John Quincy Adams became president following a controversial election, the last one ever decided in the House of Representatives. By 1828 a new political coalition had begun to form out of the old Democratic Republican party, but this time they were referred to as Democrats, and their leader was Andrew Jackson. His administration began without organized political opposition, but very quickly remnants of the old Federalist party, generally men of a conservative persuasion, called themselves National Republicans.

Jefferson's politics were clearly liberal, according to the meaning of the term in that age, and so were Jackson's. But Jefferson's politics had a sort of elitist overtone suggesting that while republican principles would guide the nation's course, men of superior ability and talent would naturally rise to the surface and become the leaders. The age of Jackson is known as the age of the common man, symbolized by Jackson himself, a man who rose from very humble beginnings to the highest office in the land. It is during the age of Jackson that we see modern ideas of democracy begin to emerge.
By 1840 the country had changed a great deal. Voting privileges had been extended to virtually all adult white males, and organized political parties began to field candidates for president and vice president on a single slate. The European world was in a period of relative calm, and America was able to develop internally without significant interference from overseas. As the country grew and expanded, domestic politics were typically rough-and-tumble, but lurking barely below the surface of the nation was the institution of slavery, which was dividing the country ever more sharply along sectional lines.

Jefferson wished to be remembered on his tombstone for three things:

• Author of the Declaration of Independence
• Author of the Virginia statute on religious freedom
• Founder of the University of Virginia

Thomas Jefferson, one of the most revered of our founding fathers, is claimed with some justification as a political icon by both liberals and conservatives in modern times, for there were elements of his political philosophy that are consistent with the beliefs of both groups. Yet one needs to understand that Jefferson's position must be understood both in the context of his own times and in the context of the changes that have occurred over the course of American history. The forces the affect our "pursuit of happiness" have evolved; so must our understanding of the Jefferson's idea of the proper role of government in American society. Had Jefferson, for example, foreseen the power of the "robber barons," he might have seen government very differently.

Jefferson was, in his day, a true liberal, even a radical one, in his pursuit of freedom of speech and religion, the spreading of republican (democratic) values far and wide and in his general approach to government. He was willing to see blood shed in the cause of freedom, not only during the revolution but as a general principle. On the other hand, he felt that all government was a necessary evil, and that that government which governed best governed least. He was one of the first sponsors of government supported education for all children, and among his proudest achievements was the founding of the University of Virginia. Jefferson felt that an educated citizenry was the surest way to protect democratic institutions and guard against a oppression. He said: "Educate the people generally, and tyranny and injustice will vanish like evil spirits at the dawn of day."

Because politics were so bitter in that era, they frequently became personal. Jefferson's greatest political rival was Alexander Hamilton. Jefferson opposed the kind of centralization that Hamilton advocated, and he strongly disagreed with Hamilton's reasoning in the creation of a national bank. [See Jefferson on the Bank.] Jefferson also parted ways with his close friend John Adams even while serving as Adams's Vice President. One of the sad outcomes of the political bitterness of the 1790s was the rupture of the friendship between these two giants. (Fortunately for posterity they were later reunited in correspondence through the intercession of their mutual friend, Dr. Benjamin Rush, and spent their latter years writing each other about a wide variety of topics. They died on the same day, July 4, 1826.)

Jefferson and Sally Hemings

Another aspect of Jefferson's life which has gotten much attention recently is the relationship between him and Sally Hemings, a slave who belonged to him. Known for her beauty, Sally was Thomas Jefferson's wife's half sister. It now seems virtually certain that Jefferson fathered children by Sally Hemings, as a result of DNA tests which connect Jefferson and Hemings though their descendants. Until this mystery had been unraveled by modern science, the Jefferson-Hemings affair was a lesson in historiography, for with one set of available evidence, reputable historians came to opposite and mutually exclusive conclusions. The lesson is that honest men and women can disagree even when agreeing on the facts, and further, that our own feelings and biases can affect the way we interpret history. The most exhaustive work on the subject prior to the DNA discoveries was the book by Annette Gordon-Reed, "Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy." Gordon-Reed, a law professor, examined all the evidence in detail and concluded that it was impossible to know for sure what the Jefferson-Hemings relationship was, but that had not stopped many earlier historians from offering definitive pronouncements on the subject.

Many admirers of Jefferson are distressed over this entire issue and would prefer not even to have it mentioned. Does that say more about Jefferson, or about us?

Jefferson the Man: An Enigma

• Claimed by both left and right, he remains elusive and controversial. Personally he was a shy and introspective man.
• He was a brilliant thinker, in office capable and pragmatic, but he was not great president.
• Jefferson personified the contradictions in republicanism: he despised ceremonies and formality and dedicated himself to intellectual pursuits. Still, he was a politician to the core-he realized that success as president depended on cooperation with Congress.
• Jefferson's View of Man was shaped by his experiences during the early days of the French Revolution. He approved of the French foray into new government forms, but he was slow to deplore the violence. He said, "The tree of liberty needs to be watered with the blood of a few patriots now and then."
• His public life was characterized by conflict: with Hamilton, Adams and even Washington from time to time. His most enduring political friendship was probably with James Madison who moved from the Federalist camp to become a stalwart of Jeffersonian democracy.

Jefferson's Political Theory

• Jefferson said, “That government is best which governs the least, because its people discipline themselves.”
• He held a strong belief in a free press, freedom of religion and speech.
• Jefferson did not like pomposity, formality, or aristocratic pretensions. He supported the yeoman farmer, who he felt he was the salt of the earth, and did not want America to become a nation of “mechanics.”
• He also did not trust judges, bankers, or merchants—and he disliked urban life.
• Jefferson loved music, education learning; he collected books—after the War of 1812 his library became the core of the Library of Congress.
• Jefferson was an early advocate of government supported education, as he showed in the land ordinances of the 1780s, parts of which he authored.

The Revolution of 1800: Jefferson's Republicans Triumph over Adams and the Federalists

Thomas Jefferson's inauguration marked a major transition of power in America. Jefferson called this peaceful transfer of power a "revolution," and in a sense that was true. Throughout history, governments (kings, autocrats, emperors) had rarely been replaced, except by death and inherited succession, without bloodshed or war. This peaceful transition at the dawn of republican ideas ushered in a new century in appropriate style. In Jefferson's First Inaugural Address he laid down his political philosophy in his own words, written in his own hand. There were no “speechwriters” in Jefferson's time.

Jefferson as President

Jefferson was known for what has been called a "pell-mell" style, in that he stepped back from the more formal practices of Washington and Adams. In keeping with his basic republican principles, he favored more informality in the White House. At dinner he sat people randomly around the table rather than in order of rank. His informality of dress surprised many, especially foreign diplomats used to the grandeur of European courts. Also in keeping with his idea of minimal government he asked Congress to repeal the federal excise taxes on whiskey. Jefferson attitude toward military matters bordered on pacifism (he had not fought during the Revolution) and he has been criticized for allowing the U.S. military to slip to the point where we could scarcely defend our own national waters, which, in that troubled time, invited abuse of America's rights as a neutral nation as the European powers waged terrible wars. His purpose was a frugal government, an admirable goal, but the reduction of military expenditures was dangerous to some.

Some Highlights of the Jefferson's Era:

• The election of 1800 was called by Jefferson with some justification a "revolution," in that for one of the only times on modern history, political power in a major nation had changed hands with no bloodshed. The peaceful transition of power is one of the great legacies of the early American republic, and Jefferson celebrated that idea in his first inaugural address.
• The following quotation from Jefferson's first inaugural address captures not only his thinking, but is a near perfect embodiment of the ideals of the Enlightenment, of which he was a product.
  • "If there be any among us how would wish to dissolve this Union or to change its republican form, let them stand undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it.
• A peculiarity existed in the electoral college provision of the Constitution-there was no distinction between Presidential and Vice-presidential electors: thus the election went into the House of Representatives, where it took over 30 ballots to elect Jefferson over Aaron Burr. (The Twelfth Amendment corrected the problem.) Hamilton interceded in favor of Jefferson, which broke the deadlock and swung the balance, but Hamilton's action irritated Burr, which eventually led to the duel that killed Hamilton several years later. Although it was not considered proper to "run" for public office openly, Jefferson worked hard behind the scenes to get elected.
• Jefferson regarded a large federal deficit (debt) as dangerous to republican government.
• He viewed large military expenditures as dangerous and likely to provoke hostilities
• He cut federal expenses, mostly through reductions in military spending. Reduction of the army had the further benefit of removing a threat to Republican government. Standing armies were still very unpopular. He also got Congress to repeal the federal whiskey taxes as a way of reducing the hand of government on the people.
• Jefferson was hounded by Republicans for political offices, but he gave jobs only to those he thought competent, no matter what their party. He did not fire Federalists, but many retired. Some, who saw where things were going politically, like John Quincy Adams, became Republicans.
• The Federalists failed to recapture political power because they were unwilling to adopt popular campaigning techniques; they also opposed territorial expansion and the War of 1812. Although the Federalists lost power more or less permanently in 1800 and disappeared altogether after 1815, a summary of the Federalist Contribution to American history is worthwhile: They do not always fare well among historians because some of their ideas seemed to be anti-republican. Nevertheless, their accomplishments are notable:
  • The Federalists created a Constitution and got the nation underway under its provisions, a considerable feat. (Compare the French Revolution.)
  • The Federalists put the nation's financial house in order.
  • The Federalists resolved significant diplomatic issues with Spain, France and England and postponed armed conflict until the nation was stronger.

The Louisiana Purchase

Jefferson's presidency was dominated by foreign affairs issues because of the Napoleonic Wars. One of the most famous events was Jefferson's purchase of the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon. When that territory was lost by Spain to France, America's rights under the Pinckney Treaty of 1795 were not transferred. Thus the farmers in the Midwest were again without recourse to free deposit in New Orleans. Jefferson sent Livingston and Monroe to Paris to secure those rights, and Napoleon, having been forced to abandon plans for colonizing that area with slaves because of a revolt in Haiti led Toussaint L'Overture, offered the Americans the whole parcel. The proposed purchase raised a Constitutional question in Jefferson's mind, but he was persuaded to put aside scruple and grab the bargain-over 800,000 square miles at about 3 cents an acre.

Jefferson's ideals were high, but like many other presidents and rulers before and after he found it difficult to live up to those ideals once in power. Of the things for which Jefferson wanted to be remembered and is remembered, very little occurred during his presidency. Only the Louisiana Purchase remains.

Barbary Pirates

Jefferson ended his first term by sending the Navy into the Mediterranean to fight the North African states who demanded tribute from ships sailing through the Mediterranean.

Although the United States could not defeat the Barbary States, the show of force induced them to respect American rights. The American people thoroughly approved of Jefferson's actions, foreign and domestic, and reelected him in 1804.

The Wars against the Barbary Pirates are notable for contributions of Preble, Decatur and O'Bannon. American prestige was on the Line-however: "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute"? Americans had been paying tribute to pirates for decades.

Jefferson and John Marshall

John Marshall is generally judged to be the greatest Chief Justice in the history of the Supreme Court. He may also be the most unappreciated or neglected figure in American history, for the imprint he left on our nation and government was enormous, yet he is not well known. We will go over his biography in detail in class, but the essential point is that after years of public service in various capacities and a distinguished legal career, he was finally appointed Chief Justice by President John Adams in one of his final acts before leaving office. Marshall was a Federalist and brought his political attitudes to the bench. Yet within a few years of his appointment, most of the Federalist judges on the court had been replaced by Republicans appointed by Jefferson or Madison. Yet the decisions that Marshall wrote continued to be unanimous or near unanimous decisions, a tribute to Marshall's astute reasoning, his persuasiveness and his leadership of the Court as its Chief. Appointed by Adams in 1801, Marshall served throughout the presidencies of Jefferson (8 years), Madison (8 years), Monroe (8 years), J.Q. Adams (4 years) and through seven of the eight years of Andrew Jackson's terms. When he died in 1835 John Quincy Adams said that Marshall's appointment was his father's greatest gift to the nation.

Jefferson had little use for courts in general or for John Marshall in particular. (There may have been personal animosity between them that had nothing to do with politics.) In any case Jefferson went to his grave calling Marshall a detriment to American government. The two great men were at their worst when confronting each other. It began with Marbury v. Madison.

William Marbury was a late appointment of John Adams who had not received his warrant as a judge, ironically because of an oversight by Marshall, who had been acting Secretary of State before becoming Chief Justice. Under the 1789 Judiciary Act judges could sue for writs of mandamus-in this case getting the court to order the warrant delivered. Marbury sued for his warrant, but Jefferson ordered Madison not to deliver it. The case eventually made its way to the Marshall court. Marshall was in a tight spot. By now it was clear that Jefferson wanted to weaken the courts, and if Marshall ordered Madison to deliver warrant and Madison did not do so, there was little Marshall could do, and the Court would be weakened-there was no way for the Court to enforce its own rulings in the face of presidential defiance.

Marshall found a clever way around the dilemma, a way that sacrificed poor Marbury but strengthened the Court immeasurably. Marshall said that Marbury was entitled to his warrant, but could not sue for it in the Supreme Court, as he had been granted the right to do in the Judiciary Act of 1789. Marshall found that portion of the act in conflict with the Constitution, and asserted the right of the Court to declare that section null and void-in other words, unconstitutional. This authority to review legislation is called "judicial review," and while Marshall did not invent it, he claimed that power for the court. Marbury is considered by many to be Marshall's most famous and important decision.

[For Marshall's later cases go to the section on Monroe's presidency.]

Lesson: Strong personalities often decisively affect history

THE LEWIS and CLARK EXPEDITION

In keeping with his wide interest in science, Jefferson launched a scientific Investigation of American Territory, in particular the territory gained through the Louisiana Purchase. He sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore all the territory west to the Pacific Ocean. Crossing the continent, Lewis and Clark were led by Sacagawea, the Shoshone wife of a French guide. They built Ft. Mandan in the Dakota territory and eventually reached the Oregon coast. They sent samples of wildlife back to Jefferson, and their travels also gave America claim to the Oregon Territory, though it would be decades before those right were assured. Jefferson also sent Zebulon Pike on a similar mission, and Pike helped establish the notion of the Great Plains as the “Great American Desert.” He also explored the Colorado Rockies and discovered the peak named for him.

DOMESTIC ISSUES IN JEFFERSON'S SECOND TERM

• As the Federalist party waned (down to 25%), so did the need for Republican unity. Jefferson faced two major defections from his party. John Randolph of Roanoke was a brilliant but tough politician who led the "Tertium Quids" ("a third something"); they stood for pure republican ideals. They attracted attention when they attacked land grants in Georgia to companies that had earlier bribed the state legislature.
• A later legislature attempted to nullify these sales, but much of the land was already owned by innocent third parties who had contracted for it in good faith. The Marshall Supreme Court ruled in Fletcher v. Peck (1810) that the state legislature could not revoke a contract, even if it had been obtained under false pretenses. The ruling established the Court's right to nullify state laws if they violated the Constitution.
• The Essex Junto: The Federalists in New England were afraid of losing of power, partly as a result of Louisiana purchase, which would open up more territory that was likely to go Republican; these are the first rumblings one hears about secession, and they started in the North.
• Vice-President Aaron Burr broke faith with Jefferson, and hatched various schemes with dissident Federalists. He ran for governor of New York in 1804 and enlisted Federalist support, which was blocked by Alexander Hamilton. Burr lost challenged Hamilton to a duel and killed him. Charged with murder, Burr fled to the West and launched possibly treasonous expedition against the United States involving invasion of Spanish territory and the turning over of territory to great Britain. He perhaps had in mind to create an independent Republic of Louisiana Republic with himself as President, though the details remain cloudy.
• During Burr's treason trial Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Court must follow very strict Constitutional criteria for conviction of treason; thus he disallowed circumstantial evidence, and Burr went free. Marshall's precedent made it difficult for later presidents to use the charge of treason to threaten opponents for political purposes.
• The foreign slave trade was outlawed January 1, 1808, as permitted by the Constitution. The law Congress passed did not end importation as many slaves continued to be smuggled into the country.

The end of Jefferson's two terms left the country much larger because of the Louisiana Purchase, but in other respects scarcely better off than in 1800. True, the Republican victory in 1800 had the effect of diffusing some of the political antagonism that characterized the 1790s, but Jefferson proved that he could be just as partisan as his predecessor Adams had been, despite the lofty words of his first inaugural address. Jefferson did not want to be remembered on his gravestone for anything he accomplished during his eight years in the White House, and that is probably an accurate judgment. Jefferson is on Mt. Rushmore, and no doubt deserves to be, but more for his thinking and intellectual leadership than for his governance. In any case he passed a healthy if somewhat impotent nation along to his successor, his friend James Madison.

America in the Age of Napoleon
Madison's Presidency
Return to History 121 Part 3