General

Many Americans probably think that the "1812 Overture" was written to commemorate the war of 1812, especially since it is often performed on the 4th of July to the accompaniment of bells and cannon. In fact, the work was written by Tchaikovsky to celebrate Napoleon's invasion of Russia in that year. That faulty connection, however, is not as wrong as it may seem.

In the first place, the War of 1812 has often been called a forgotten war, with some good reason. Few Americans know very much about the War of 1812 beyond the vague idea that it was fought with the British and that there was a Battle of New Orleans involved. Part of the reason for that vagueness may be that the war changed very little in America: The end of the war restored the status quo ante bellum, that is, it left everything the way it had been when the war began (except, of course, for the dead and wounded.)  In addition, the end of the war coincided with the end of the Napoleonic wars (the War of 1812 ended six months before Waterloo) and thus was overshadowed by the greater events going on in Europe. Added to that is that fact that with a few notable exceptions, the Americans did not fight well, even allowing their capital to be burned by the British in 1814.

The second reason why the confusion with the events in Russian 1812 is understandable is that the two events were in fact related. The War of 1812 began as a result of the fighting in Europe, which left America, a neutral nation, besieged by both major players—France and England—as it tried to carry on normal trade in abnormal times. The war, in other words, was fought largely over neutral rights, although issues such as national pride, economics and regional politics certainly played their share. The fact of the Napoleonic wars also helped determine the way in which the British fought the war, for they felt that Napoleon was a far greater danger to the world than any minor acts of interference (as they saw it) they might have committed with regard to American trade.

Thus there are many reasons why Americans do not really celebrate the War of 1812. The war did, however, produce its share of victories and heroes—most famously, Andrew Jackson at New Orleans. In the end, however, the most important result of the war of 1812 may have been the fact that placed America on the world stage at a level which had not been achieved by the Revolution. The American experiment was considered just that, an experiment, and many Europeans fully expected the new nation to fail, as it well might have. The War of 1812 has thus been called with some justification America’s second war for independence—an assertion of America's position as a nation worthy of respect. 

At the start America was woefully unprepared for conflict. There was lack of unanimity over the causes, organization was poor, and militia forces—a necessary adjunct to the regulars—displayed a general unwillingness to go beyond their own state borders to fight. Few strong leaders remained from the Revolutionary generation, and early encounters with the British, though they were still distracted by Napoleon, were disastrous. Nevertheless, American sailors were very capable, and American soldiers, when well led, were prepared to fight. However poorly the Americans fought the war, they did indeed fight it, growing stronger as the war progressed and achieved at worst a stalemate. New leaders emerged such as Andrew Jackson, Oliver Hazard Perry, Thomas MacDonough and Winfield Scott. In fact, had the war gone on longer, the Americans might well have given the British more defeats as significant though perhaps not as one-sided as the Battle of New Orleans. Finally, no matter how sharply Americans were divided over the war early in 1812, the end of the war brought the "Era of Good Feelings," which though perhaps misnamed nevertheless showed that America had come through the war essentially intact.

Despite the losses, America probably gained more than it lost from the war. If nothing else, the conduct of the war left the powerful lessons that wars should not be entered into lightly or for the wrong reasons, and that it is best to be prepared for war before the fighting begins rather than having to improvise once hostilities have actually begun.

Review: Chronology of Events leading up to the War.

SUMMARY OF THE WAR

U.S. Objectives of the War of 1812 were as follows:

• Get the British to repeal their Orders in Council, which placed severe trade restrictions on the Americans.
• Get the British to stop the impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy.
• Assert Americans' rights to freedom of the Seas.
• See Madison's War Message to Congress

The Politics of the War:

• Despite early optimism, American war efforts marred by poor preparation and management, ineffective leadership, and an ill-designed strategy. Americans expected victory even though unprepared.
• President Madison had problems in his administration beyond his control, and by the end of the war the Americans were getting their house in order. 
• The Vote for the war in the House was 79-49—all the Northeastern states from Delaware to Massachusetts were against it.
• Federalists tended to oppose the war, Republicans tended to support it.
• New England, where the Federalists were still strong, refused to take an active part in the war effort.
• To ensure that Republican financial reforms would not be undone, Congress refused to raise taxes.
• Great Britain was in a state of turmoil politically, which helped bring the war about and contributed to its conduct by the British.  King George III was by then totally insane, and the Prime minister (Spencer Percival) had been killed.
• Preoccupied with Napoleon, Great Britain appeared no better in executing offensive operations.

Military Issues:

• The United States Army was small, and state militias proved inadequate to fight well-trained veterans. Early campaigns were designed to take Canada, an appealing goal because of the abundance of land, the lucrative fur trade and problems with Indians. All the early Canadian campaigns were unsuccessful. Isaac Hull surrendered in Detroit. Van Rensalaer’s New York militia troops refused to enter Canada.
• In 1814, England planned a three-pronged attack on the United States—a march from Canada into the Hudson River Valley, an amphibious assault on the Chesapeake Bay region, and occupation of New Orleans. The decisive campaign was in New York State, where Americans stopped the English on Lake Champlain, near Plattsburg. As a result of this defeat, England agreed to end hostilities. In the meantime, however, English operations in the Chesapeake resulted in the burning of Washington and the siege of Baltimore after the poor performance of Americans at Bladensburg. Americans did make a strong stand at Ft. McHenry in Baltimore.
• The British attempt to take New Orleans under Sir Edwin Packenham actually took place after the peace treaty had been signed, but there was no way to communicate the news in time to prevent the battle. A rag-tag American army, led by "Old Hickory," Andrew Jackson, annihilated the English invading force in January 1815.
• American soldiers were capable of fighting when well led, and American ships and sailors were very good.
• Few experienced leaders were left from the Revolutionary generation.

• New shipping was needed but was not built in 1812, thus the blue-water Navy collectively was ineffective.
• American ships were better than British ships on a one-to-one level.
• American privateers did very well; 148 "legalized pirates" captured 1300 British ships, damaging the British cause.
• The Constitution under Captain Isaac Hull, Commodore Perry on Lake Erie and Commodore Thomas McDonough on Lake Champlain all fought very well.

• The American Peace Party included John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay. The Duke of Wellington advised England to abandon the war. After treaty Great Britain still considered the war a stab in the back when they were in trouble—they saw the Yankees as "degenerate Englishmen." The British victory at Waterloo and the American victory at New Orleans detracted from bad feelings.
• America refuses to cede territory; alteration of fishing rights and transit of Mississippi issues disappear.
• Status Quo Ante Bellum

THE HARTFORD CONVENTION: Hints of Secession. See THE HARTFORD CONVENTION:

• Abolish the 3/5 Compromise (Reduce Southern power in Congress.)
• Require 2/3 of the Senate to declare war. (One third of the states could veto a war proposal.)
• Place a 60-day limit on any embargo.
• Permit presidents to serve only one term.
• No president may succeed another president from the same state. (Prevent another "Virginia dynasty.")

The Treaty of Ghent discredited the Federalists and killed the party.

AFTERMATH OF WAR—The Fruits of "Victory": The american victory was convincing to Europe

• End of Barbary Tributes—freedom from harassment by pirates.
• The Indians were the big losers—they backed the wrong side (Not the first time nor the last.)
• The End of the Federalists
• Reform of Republicans: The New Nationalism
• The "Hundred Years’ Peace" Begins in Europe with the Congress of Vienna

Copyright © Henry J. Sage 2001
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Updated December 16, 2003