THE JAMES MONROE ADMINISTRATION: Last of the "Virginia Dynasty"
1817-1825

Era of Good Feelings | Monroe Doctrine | Missouri Compromise | 1824 Election
Sectional Issues 1815-1860 | The Marshall Court

JAMES MONROE was a “lucky man”—a mediocre president, but in tune with the times. Monroe was a William and Mary graduate and Jefferson’s law student, of whom Jefferson once said, “Monroe was so honest that if you turned his soul inside out, there would not be a spot on it.” He was the last president to dress in the old colonial style. His distinguished cabinet included John Quincy Adams, John C. Calhoun and William Crawford, all three of whom became candidates for President. Monroe was one of the last of the Founding Generation. He was born in Westmoreland County and served in the American Revolution. He was part of the Virginia Convention that ratified the Constitution in 1788. During the 1790s he served in Washington's administration as Ambassador to France and later participated in the Louisiana Purchase under President Jefferson. His ambition and energy, together with the backing of President Madison, made him the Republican choice for the Presidency in 1816. With little Federalist opposition, he easily won re-election in 1820, receiving every electoral vote but one.

Monroe's First Inaugural Address showed that the Republicans had adopted Federalist/Nationalist principles—Monroe supported a standing Army, strong Navy, fortifications, and support for manufacturing. It was said at the time that "The Republicans have out-federalized federalism." But Monroe was still an old Jeffersonian at heart—he vetoed certain bills on Constitutional grounds, the only grounds, it was believed at the time, on which presidents could legitimately veto actions of Congress.

See the page on other Political Figures who emerged at this time.

The ERA of GOOD FEELINGS: A Time of Peace, Prosperity, Liberty. Here are some of the main points:

• James Monroe ran unopposed for reelection in 1820 and received every electoral vote but one.
• The War of 1812 had ended the issue of American independence, and the nation was free to develop without a specter of European recolonization hanging over its head.
• Treaties with Great Britain and Spain signed during the post-War of 1812 era left America's borders and shores secure.
• The Jeffersonian balance between individual liberty and responsible government seemed to have been reached.
• The Monroe years were also a time of phenomenal economic growth; tariffs and land sales were rich sources of national wealth. Government operated with a surplus of income for most of the 19th century.
• War issues had fostered the spirit of nationalism—the need for a national bank, tariff protection, etc.
• The “Era of Good Feelings” could not, however, last in a society of so many contending interests. Although the surface of public affairs was calm, significant troubles were roiling below the waters. (See sectional issues.)

ANGLO-AMERICAN RAPPROCHEMENT. In the aftermath of the War of 1812, both Americans and Britons were fatigues from decades of struggle. Although America did not fight in the Napoleonic wars, there was lasting tension over neutral rights, etc. Thus both parties were disposed to try to secure peace for the future and entered into negotiations to achieve that end with the following results:.

• The Commercial Convention of 1815 ended unfavorable trade practices by the British and allowed American access to various markets.
• In 1817 many armaments (naval and forts) remained around Great Lakes. Furthermore, Canadians were very apprehensive about American expansionist tendencies. The Rush-Bagot Agreement of 1817 was designed to reduce tension along the Canadian boundary. Minister Bagot in Washington flattered the Americans (calling Dolley Madison a "queen".) The Rush-Bagot Treaty provided the basis but not reality of an unguarded boundary and demilitarization of the Great Lakes. Navies were kept in mothballs. (The Treaty of Washington of 1871 finally completed disarmament.)
  • Lake Champlain and Lake Ontario, 1 ship each; 2 ships on the upper lakes.
  • 1 ship and 1 Revenue cutter only on the Great Lakes.
• The Convention (Boundary Settlement) of 1818. Gallatin and Rush formed the treaty in in London.
  • It provided for the U.S.-Canada boundary to be along the 49^th Parallel to the Rocky Mountains.
  • Americans got fishing rights off Canada forever.
  • It provided for joint occupation of Oregon; Northern Louisiana border at 49^th parallel.
  • Indians quieted; commission established to adjust territorial disputes.

1819 The Transcontinental Treaty (Adams-Onis) fixed the Louisiana border to the Pacific Ocean. Florida was ceded to U.S.

• The Russian Threat; Tsar’s ukase of 1821--Russian territory extends to 51^st parallel; California settlements of Vitus Bering. 1824, 54-40 line agreed.
• Congress of Vienna and the Quadruple Alliance sought to restore world to prewar status—could include return of Spanish rule.
• The British in South America; British desire to forestall action by Quadruple Alliance. Most countries gained independence 1811-21. Polignac, French foreign minister already agreed to stay out of South America, but threat that France would help Spain retake colonies.
• Adams wants U.S. to act independently, not be a "row boat in the wake of a British man of war."
• Final document prepared largely by J.Q. Adams.
• American colonies no longer open to European influence, and Western Hemisphere no longer open to colonization.
• American Political system differs from Europe’s and Europe should not try to export its ideas.
• Danger to America if the European system were extended to the Western Hemisphere.
• U.S. will not interfere in European, colonial affairs.
• European Response—ridicule and scorn. Doctrine has no standing in international law. Effectiveness ultimately depends on Royal Navy, as Great Britain for her own reasons was in tune with American thinking.

Substantial population growth, improved transportation links within the various sections, and attacks on the institution of slavery contributed to a growing sense of regionalism in the new nation. Powerful sectional loyalties had already begun to undermine national unity. The trans-Appalachian West—with its rich soil and developing system of water transportation—experienced substantial growth after 1790. Native Americans offered some resistance but were pushed aside by the onrushing settlers. The growth in the West typified the incredible population growth of the whole nation. Areas that had been populated by Indians and fur traders became the states of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio. The mix of people in the West led to the creation of a new regional culture of a rootless, optimistic folk. The Indians stood in the way of westward movement and suffered the consequences. Defrauded and terrorized, some Indians resisted. Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, took up the tomahawk but was decisively defeated. So, too, were the Creeks.

THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE

Background: The Panic of 1819 worsened tension between the sections and growing sectionalism repeatedly influenced the politics of the 1820s. The most sharply divisive event was the Missouri Crisis of 1819-1820. Many of Missouri Territory’s settlers were native southerners who owned slaves and they petitioned for Missouri’s admission as a slave state. But Congressman James Tallmadge’s amendment called for the gradual abolition of slavery in the proposed new state. This was the first attempt to restrict the expansion of slavery since the Northwest Ordinance of 1797.

The debate generated by the Tallmadge Amendment did not deal with the morality of slavery or the rights of blacks; what was at stake was political influence. Missouri’s admission would give the slave states a majority, thus frightening northerners who already complained of the advantages the South gained from the Three-Fifths Compromise and who also feared having to compete with slave labor.

The Missouri Compromise admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, and the Thomas Amendment barred slavery north of 36ð° x30ð¢ latitude in the old Louisiana Purchase Territory. Southerners accepted these terms since they believed the banned territory was environmentally hostile to slavery anyway. Clay also worked out a compromise when the Missouri constitution tried to ban free blacks from migrating into the new state. The Missouri Crisis warned of the potential divisiveness of the slavery issue.

Missouri Compromise Issues

• First real confrontation on slavery since Constitutional convention; Question is spread or containment; political, not moral.
• 1819: States even, 11-11; free states have 105-81 edge in House; North’s population growing more rapidly;
• 2,000-3,000 slaves in upper Louisiana territory; Slavery goes back to Spanish, French rule;
• Political issue—the morality of slavery not yet a serious question for open debate, but sentiment growing;
• Rethinking the Three-Fifths Compromise: QUESTION: Can U.S. Limit slavery in a state: Can U.S. limit admission with slavery? --Equal states
• 17 February 1820: Maine applies for admission as 23^rd state
• Rep. Tallmadge (N.Y.) introduces proposal to amend enabling legislation for Missouri to prohibit further introduction of slaves into Missouri—those already there would become free at age 25.
• Fierce debate, passed House (close), lost in Senate
• Meanwhile Arkansas organized as territory; slavery OK
• Sen. Thomas (Ill) Amendment: Missouri/Maine, 36-30
• Taylor Amendment (House): No more slavery in territories
• Final compromise narrowly achieved; the South "wins": No. Central states considered "desert"
• The Second Missouri Compromise: The Missouri Constitution
• Excluded free Blacks and Mulattos from the State
• No conflict with Constitution—"No power to bind"
• Constitution: Art IV, Sect. 2
• Reaction: A Temporary solution at best; feelings smoldering; Jefferson: A "Fire Bell in the Night"
• The final compromise accepted, but really accomplished by smoke and mirrors—it said that, in effect, "this constitutions (Missouri) does not mean what it says. But in the climate of the times, it was accepted with relief, and the country did not have to confront the slavery issue again until 1850, but by that time the abolitionist movement had thoroughly transformed the dynamics of the debate. It will be much harder next time.

• John Quincy Adams nominated by Massachusetts Assembly. Wins with 100,000 votes in population of over 10,000,000; ends the "Virginia dynasty"
• Clay nominated by Kentucky legislature: American System [see below]
• Jackson nominated by Tennessee legislature, endorsed by Pennsylvania. Took no stands on issues
• Crawford had stroke in 1823. Congressional caucus nominated
• Calhoun withdraws; had announced in 1821 (scandal)
• Federalist Party had died, but old Republicans also gone—now it’s National Republicans v. Democratic Republicans
• Issues: States’ Rights, Strict Construction; King Caucus: Power to nominate is power to elect. Clay’s "American System."
• Personal Politics: Clay throws support to Adams. Adams Prevails in the House, loses with his program. (See Address)

RESULT:

• Adams 109,000 84 N.E., New York (13)
• Clay 47,000 37 KY, Ohio, Missouri
• Crawford 47,000 41 Virginia, Ga, Del (4)
• Jackson 154,000 99 S.E., Ill, Ind, Pa, Md, N.J.

John Quincy Adams as President.

• Adams hoped to make his presidency a tribute to nationalism. Yet the boldness of his program exceeded his political ability to make it happen.
• He often appeared insensitive to public feelings, and he failed to use his power to build support for his programs. Scrupulously honest, he nevertheless was dogged by charges that he and Clay had struck a "corrupt bargain" to gain Adams the presidency.
• Refused patronage on honorable grounds, left civil servants in office unless they could be removed for cause. Favored the America System, went far beyond others—astronomy, education, arts, agriculture, sciences, etc. [see inaugural] Aroused much states’ rights opposition.
• Adams-Clay followers became National Republicans (later Whigs), Jackson men Democratic Republicans; later dropped R.
• 1826. Panama Congress debate.
• July 4: Thomas Jefferson and John Adams both die . . . "Jefferson lives"

• Many state Constitutions liberalized 1816-1830, gradually eliminating property qualifications, taxpaying for voting, religious qualifications for office, etc. Electors more and more elected by people, not legislatures.
• The nation’s founders believed that "democracy" contained dangerous impulses, but by the 1830s the term had become more acceptable and applicable to American institutions. Alexis de Tocqueville noticed the decline of deference and the elevation of popular sovereignty in America. "Self-made" men could now rise in stature. Americans in the 1820s and 1830s no longer feared that democracy would lead to anarchy. Each individual was to be given an equal start in life, but equality of opportunity did not mean equality of result. The American people were happy to accept a society of winners and losers.
• By 1820, most states had eliminated property requirements for manhood suffrage and, as public political involvement swelled, a permanent two-party system became a forum for political ideas. It became understood that a "loyal opposition" was essential to democratic government. Economic questions (prompted by the Panic of 1819) and the role of the federal government were major concerns that assisted a great swelling of popular political interest.
• Workingmen's parties and trade unions emerged as workers became convinced that the government should protect the rights of labor as well as those of the producers. Abolitionists sought an end to slavery and supported the civil rights of free African Americans and women. Democratic ideals had a real impact on the American political system. Nearly all adult white males gained the right to vote whether or not they had property. Offices that had been appointive—such as judgeships or the electoral college—were made elective.
• The greatest change took place in the style of politics. Professional politicians emerged, actively seeking votes and acting as servants of the people. Men such as Martin Van Buren in New York extolled the public benefits of a two-party system, and political machines began to develop on the state level. National parties eventually developed—the Democrats and the Whigs. Although political parties often served special economic interests, it should be remembered that American politics always retained a strong republican ideology and that all parties sought to preserve equality of opportunity. The Whigs and Democrats differed on whether this could be done best with or without active intervention by the national government, but neither party gave much thought to extending rights to anyone other than adult, white males. It was left to other, more radical, parties to argue the cause of African-Americans, women, and working people.
• Social equality became the dominant principle of the age. Special privilege and family connections could no longer be counted on to guarantee success. Industrialization, however, perpetuated inequality, not in the traditional sense of birth or privilege, but in terms of wealth and attainment. Despite persistent and growing economic inequality, Americans generally believed they had created an egalitarian society, and in many ways they had. Political equality for all white males was a radical achievement, and Americans came to prefer the "self-made" man to one who had inherited wealth and refinement. The egalitarian spirit carried over into an attack on the licensed professions, and it was believed that any white male should have a chance to practice law or medicine, whether or not he was trained.

• Romanticism in American literature often appealed to the feelings and intuitions of ordinary people. A mass reading audience developed, and poets, writers, and artists directed their work to a democratic populace. American artists (although striving to elevate popular tastes) were encouraged to contribute to the general welfare by supporting virtue and middle-class sentiments.
• The democratic ethos also affected the arts in this period. Artists no longer worked for an aristocratic elite, but for a mass audience. Many writers and painters pleased the public by turning out Gothic horror stories, romantic women's fiction, melodramas, or genre paintings that lovingly depicted the American way of life. More serious artists sought to inspire the masses with neoclassical sculpture, or landscapes of untamed nature. Only a few individuals, like Edgar Allan Poe, were truly avant-garde, romantic artists.

THE MARSHALL COURT

By virtually any measure, John Marshall was the greatest Chief Justice in American history. The impact of his decisions is felt to this day, as well as many common practices of the Court, such as the justices-only luncheons, the handshake before every session among all the justices, and the spirit of collegiality that has been part of the Supreme Court atmosphere since Marshall's time. See Marshall topic summary.