The Emergence of a More Democratic Republic

We should recall that democracy as we understand it at the end of the Twentieth Century did not exist in the ages of Jefferson and Jackson. Today we accept the notion that democracy means that every citizen has a vote, with certain reasonable restrictions such as age, registration requirements and so on. In the early 1800s it was generally accepted that in order to vote, a person needed to have a legal stake in the system, which could mean property ownership or some economic equivalent. When government under the Constitution began, the people did not vote for presidential electors; U. S. senators were elected by the state legislatures until 1913. Even eligibility to vote for members of the House of Representatives was left to the individual states. Women, Indians and Blacks (whether slave or free) were restricted from voting almost everywhere. When Sam Houston was elected governor of Tennessee in 1828, his friends had to make him a gift of 500 acres of land, which was one requirement for holding that office.

In the decades surrounding the presidency of Andrew Jackson democracy began to expand. States rewrote constitutions and extended the franchise to all free white males. European visitors such as Alexis de Tocqueville noticed the spirit of equality that pervaded the United States, unlike anything known in the Old World. (Not all Europeans, nor Americans, for that matter, were sure that was a good idea—terms like “mobocracy” and “anarchy” were thrown around from time to time.) By the late 1830s, the United States had become a full democracy for adult white males, but inequalities still existed: poor people were still poor, and while wealth may not have bought votes directly, it certainly was a prerequisite for any kind of real power. What was different about America was not that the gap between rich and poor had narrowed—indeed, the opposite was probably true--but that there were few systemic barriers (except for slavery) that prevented people from gaining wealth and power. However limited, the idea of America as a land of unprecedented opportunity was not inaccurate in the context of the times. Importantly, equality of opportunity did not necessarily mean equality of result, a concept with which Americans continue to wrestle in making political choices.

The other major change in the Jacksonian era was the emergence of a solid two-party system. The modern Democratic Party was founded under Jackson, and an opposition party—the Whigs—soon evolved. When that party disappeared in the early 1850s, it was soon replaced by the Republican Party, giving the U.S. the basic political structure that survives to this day. Although many issues have changed since the 1800s, the present Republican and Democratic parties have much in common with their ancestors.

Another development in the Age of Jackson was that the idea of political service as a sort of noblesse oblige—which was the way people like Washington and Jefferson tended to look at it—was gone. Politics for many men became if not a career, than certainly something they pursued because they wanted to, not because they thought they ought to. What rewards they sought are no easier to establish then than they are today—recognition, a sense of power, perhaps financial gain and other factors were no doubt present in those who sought office of government related jobs, but in any case it became possible to think in terms of the profession of politics.

John Quincy Adams was probably the man who personified the notion of the professional, lifelong politician, having served in a variety of public offices for most of his life during a career that went back to his father's time. Alone among American presidents, John Quincy Adams even served 18 years in the House of Representatives after being president, a tenure in which he distinguished himself as a forceful voice in opposition to slavery. Indeed, many leading public figures of the early nineteenth century—Martin Van Buren, Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun—were hardly ever out of office, and their careers were devoted to activities that advanced their political fortunes.

In order to get elected politicians must create issues, and there were a number in this era that were the focus of political battles: the sales of government land; protective tariffs; the construction of internal improvements such as harbors, canals, roads and railroads; the existence of the National Bank; and, probably the most divisive of all, slavery.

The Election of 1824

The election of 1824 is most interesting for the fact that it is the last election in which the result was not decided by the electoral college. Because no one won a majority of votes in that body, it went into the House of Representatives, which decided in favor of John Quincy Adams, even though Andrew Jackson had the largest popular and electoral vote. Although it is not known what went on behind the scenes, Jackson's supporters spoke of a “corrupt bargain” between Adams and Henry Clay, an issue that carried over to the election of 1828 and had a harmful effect on Adams' administration. Five candidates had sought the presidency in 1824, backed not by parties as such but by various state caucuses and coalitions. John Quincy Adams, William Crawford, Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, and Andrew Jackson all had their hats in the ring, although Calhoun dropped out and Crawford became ill. Thus it became a three-man race, and when Adams, the winner, named Henry Clay as Secretary of state—a post that seemed to lead straight to the presidency, having been held by every previous president except Washington and John Adams—Jackson's people smelled a rat. Jackson's men in Congress gave Adams a bad time, and his presidency was not successful.

John Quincy Adams elected by the House of Representatives: Names Henry Clay Secretary of State.

(Note:  It is interesting that among the great figures from early American history, several had presidencies that did not seem to live up to their other accomplishments, including Jefferson, Madison and John Quincy Adams.)

The Life and Times of Andrew Jackson

The Election of 1828

The election of 1828 was more of a “revolution” than that of 1800. Andrew Jackson won by 647,000 votes to 507,000, 178-83 in electoral college. Far more people voted for president than in 1824, as the states were beginning to let the people select presidential electors. the age of Jackson was indeed a major Democratic Revolution and the election of that year was testimony to that fact.

The campaign was one of the dirtiest in American history and became a mudslinging attack on personalities. John Q. Adams was accused of “feeding at the public trough,” because of his long years of public service. He was called a “pimp” for providing an American girl as “gift” for the Czar of Russia, though, like his father, John Quincy was an extremely moral man of good old Puritan stock. Yet, as he had installed a billiard table for the White House he was charged with turning it into a “gambling den.” Meanwhile, Jackson was portrayed as a "drunk," a brawler and an adulterer because Rachel’s divorce had not been final when they first got married. His famous duel with Charles Dickinson also led to the charge that he was a murderer.

A new two-party system emerged from the election of 1828. From then on, parties ran their candidates for President and Vice-president together as a ticket.  John C. Calhoun was the last man to run for Vice President independently.  (He was elected twice, under both Adams and Jackson.)

Several significant political issues divided the people at the time, among them the National Bank and the protective tariff.  Jackson managed to avoid taking firm positions on any issues and in fact managed to get on both sides of the tariff question, depending on what part of the country his people were in.  This was done by a bill to create a tariff that was supposedly so high that it would never pass.  It did pass, however, and became known as the “Tariff of Abominations,” which raised a storm of protest led by John C. Calhoun.

[See The South Carolina Exposition and Protest.]

Jackson’s Inauguration is famous for the riotous behavior of his supporters: The locals complained that “barbarians” had invaded the White House; the stewards finally saved day by taking the punch bowls outside.

Jackson saw himself as President of All the People—defender of the “Common Man.”  A prevailing view since the writing of the Constitution had been an assumption of the natural supremacy of the legislature.  Jackson vigorously challenged that assumption.  He saw himself as the direct representative of all the people and willingly used his authority on their behalf.  He vetoed more bills than all his predecessors combined, challenging the view that the only grounds for a presidential veto were a bill's constitutionality.  He expanded the power of his office, but did not favor unlimited power for the national government.

Jackson used an unofficial "Kitchen Cabinet" of close friends to advise him.  He was a poor administrator, had strong prejudices, held contempt for expert advice, and made bad choices, but he was a strong and popular leader.

Jackson more or less endorsed the idea of the "Spoils System": he believed that rotation of people in government jobs (which required no special expertise) led to the Expansion of democracy.

• New Constitutions of the 1820s expanded democracy in many states.  For example, the Virginia Constitution was rewritten in 1829 and almost abolished slavery.  Other revisions included Massachusetts (1820) and New York (1821.)  Property holding qualifications for voting were lifted.
• According to some, the Constitution had been designed to keep the common man in his place.  Fear of "Mob Rule" was relevant.   Jacksonian democracy changed that: in 1824 25% of adult white males were eligible to vote; by 1840 it was up to 78%. More and more states went to popular elections for the presidency.

Issues surrounding Jackson's Presidency:

• The National Bank: Jackson kills it.  See Jackson's veto message. 
• Internal Improvements: The Maysville Road
• The Tariff: The Nullification controversy of 1832
  • See the South Carolina Ordinance and
  • Jackson's Proclamation on Nullification
• The matter of states rights versus Union: 
  • See Daniel Webster's Union Address 

(Note: The issue of "Union" does not resonate with Americans today because we take it for granted.   It is very much like our feelings of patriotism, but was not universally shared in those times.  Still, in 1861 thousands of northern young men and boys went off to fight for the concept of the Union.  Webster was the prime articulator of that idea.

Jackson and Calhoun: Although Jackson was a Democrat and Daniel Webster a Whig, they did agree on the idea of Union.  Standing poles apart from both was Vice President John C. Calhoun.  Secretary of State Martin Van Buren and Calhoun began in a clash over who was to be the heir apparent to Jackson, a position Van Buren easily attained as Calhoun moved farther and farther to the states' right position.  Calhoun needed that position to keep strength in South Carolina, while Van Buren had a comfortable political base in New York.  Jackson was not totally unsympathetic to states' rights issues, but felt Calhoun and South Carolina went far too far afield in nullification of the tariff in 1832.

THE PEGGY EATON AFFAIR

Jackson and the Whigs

• Rise of the Whigs—all those opposed to “King Andrew”
• Locofocos—the radical wing of the Jacksonians, ex members of the Workingman’s Party. They wanted a stable currency because inflation killed people of fixed wages.
• Webster, Clay and the American system; some Whigs resemble old Federalists.
• The National Republican Party, the party of John Quincy Adams, who is still around.  He serves in Congress 18 years after being President.  (See the Film "Amistad.")

INDIAN REMOVALS

Without much doubt the ugliest event in the Jackson years was the removal of the Cherokee Indians from Georgia to reservations located west of the Mississippi River.  Although the case of Worcester v. Georgia had established the Cherokee as an independent nation within Georgia, Jackson backed Georgia and defied the Court, and thousands of Cherokee were forced along the “Trail of Tears” to the West.

• Jackson felt that the Indians would be better off “out of the way” and settled his policy on “voluntary emigration west of the Mississippi.” The Cherokee had previously been recognized as a nation with laws and customs of their own.
• An 1828 Georgia law declared that the state had jurisdiction over Indian Territory. Gold was discovered on Indian land, and Indians sought relief in the Supreme Court to hold onto land.
• Georgia demanded that people on reservations get licenses—came to the Supreme Court in Worcester v. Georgia. The Court (Marshall) said that Georgia state laws had no force on Cherokee land.
• The Court gets further into the act: Cherokee Nation vs. Georgia [See also the Dissenting Opinion by Justice Thompson.]

Note: Jackson’s strong states’ rights position on Indian matters helped lead South Carolina to think he might take the same approach on the tariff.

The Election of 1840: Log Cabin and Hard Cider

• "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too!"
• "Van, Van is a used-up man"
• The Rush for Spoils

The Aftermath of Jacksonianism

• Parties are here to stay, organized all the way down to precinct level.
• The machine system begins to grow.
• Many conflicting interpretations of Jackson.
• Republican virtue.

Return to History 121 Part 2

Copyright © Henry J. Sage 1996-2005 | Updated July 11, 2005